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Brexit United Kingdom referendum proposal Written by Fact-checked by Last Updated: Mar 26, 2024 • Article History Brexit postal ballot Brexit postal ballot See all media Category: History & Society Date:     June 23, 2016 - present  Participants:     Europe     United Kingdom Key People:     David Cameron     Nigel Farage     Philip Hammond Recent News Mar. 26, 2024, 1:53 AM ET (AP) UK farmers in tractors head to Parliament to protest rules they say threaten livelihoods Brexit, the United Kingdom’s withdrawal from the European Union (EU), which formally occurred on January 31, 2020. The term Brexit is a portmanteau coined as shorthand for British exit. In a referendum held on June 23, 2016, some 52 percent of those British voters who participated opted to leave the EU, setting the stage for the U.K. to become the first country ever to do so. The details of the separation were negotiated for more than two years following the submission of Britain’s formal request to leave in March 2017, and British Prime Minister Theresa May, whose legacy is inextricably bound to Brexit, was forced to resign in July 2019 after she repeatedly failed to win approval from Parliament for the separation agreement that she had negotiated with the EU. Ultimately, Brexit was accomplished under her successor, Boris Johnson. David Cameron and the Brexit referendum Nigel Farage Nigel Farage United Kingdom Independence Party leader Nigel Farage unveiling an anti-immigration poster prior to the Brexit vote on June 23, 2016. In 2013, responding to growing Euroskepticism within his Conservative Party, British Prime Minister David Cameron first pledged to conduct a referendum on whether the U.K. should remain in the EU. Even before the surge of immigration in 2015 that resulted from upheaval in the Middle East and Africa, many Britons had become distressed with the influx of migrants from elsewhere in the EU who had arrived through the EU’s open borders. Exploiting this anti-immigrant sentiment, the Nigel Farage-led nationalist United Kingdom Independence Party made big gains in elections largely at the expense of the Conservatives. Euroskeptics in Britain were also alarmed by British financial obligations that had come about as a result of the EU’s response to the euro-zone debt crisis and the bailout of Greece (2009–12). They argued that Britain had relinquished too much of its sovereignty. Moreover, they were fed up with what they saw as excessive EU regulations on consumers, employers, and the environment. The Labour and Liberal Democratic parties generally favoured remaining within the EU, and there were still many Conservatives, Cameron among them, who remained committed to British membership, provided that a minimum of reforms could be secured from the U.K.’s 27 partners in the EU. Having triumphed in the 2015 U.K. general election, Cameron prepared to make good on his promise to hold a referendum on EU membership before 2017, but first he sought to win concessions from the European Council that would address some of the concerns of those Britons who wanted out of the EU (an undertaking Cameron characterized as “Mission Possible”). In February 2016 EU leaders agreed to comply with a number of Cameron’s requests, including, notably, allowing the U.K. to limit benefits for migrant workers during their first four years in Britain, though this so-called “emergency brake” could be applied only for seven years. Britain also was to be exempt from the EU’s “ever-closer union” commitment, was permitted to maintain the pound sterling as its currency, and was reimbursed for money spent on euro-zone bailouts. With that agreement in hand, Cameron scheduled the referendum for June 2016 and took the lead in the “remain” campaign, which focused on an organization called Britain Stronger in Europe and argued for the benefits of participation in the EU’s single market. The “leave” effort, which coalesced around the Vote Leave campaign, was headed up by ex-London mayor Boris Johnson, who was widely seen as a challenger for Cameron’s leadership of the Conservative Party. Johnson repeatedly claimed that the EU had “changed out of all recognition” from the common market that Britain had joined in 1973, and Leavers argued that EU membership prevented Britain from negotiating advantageous trade deals. Both sides made gloom-and-doom proclamations regarding the consequences that would result from their opponents’ triumph, and both sides lined up expert testimony and studies supporting their visions. They also racked up celebrity endorsements that ranged from the powerful (U.S. Pres. Barack Obama, German Chancellor Angela Merkel, and International Monetary Fund managing director Christine Lagarde on the remain side and former British foreign minister Lord David Owen and Republican U.S. presidential candidate Donald Trump on the leave side) to the glamorous (actors Benedict Cumberbatch and Sir Patrick Stewart backing the remain effort and actor Sir Michael Caine and former cricket star Ian Botham being in the leave ranks). United Kingdom Brexit referendum United Kingdom Brexit referendum The majority vote by region in the 2016 referendum on whether the United Kingdom should remain in the European Union. Opinion polling on the eve of the referendum showed both sides of the Brexit question fairly evenly divided, but, when the votes were tallied, some 52 percent of those who voted had chosen to leave the EU. Cameron resigned in order to allow his successor to conduct the negotiations on the British departure. In announcing his resignation, he said, “I don’t think it would be right for me to try to be the captain that steers our country to its next destination.” Theresa’s May’s Brexit failure The road to the Chequers plan Theresa May and Brexit Theresa May and Brexit British Prime Minister Theresa May signing the official letter of intent to invoke Article 50 of the Lisbon Treaty, March 28, 2017. The delivery of the letter to EU Pres. Donald Tusk the following day marked the formal start of Brexit proceedings. Although Johnson had appeared to be poised to replace Cameron, as events played out, Home Secretary Theresa May became the new leader of the Conservative Party and prime minister in July 2016. May, who had opposed Brexit, came into office promising to see it to completion, On March 29, 2017, she formally submitted a six-page letter to European Council Pres. Donald Tusk invoking article 50 of the Lisbon Treaty, thus opening a two-year window for negotiations between the U.K. and the EU over the details of separation. In the letter, May pledged to enter the discussions “constructively and respectfully, in a spirit of sincere cooperation.” She also hoped that a “bold and ambitious Free Trade Agreement” would result from the negotiations. Special offer for students! Check out our special academic rate and excel this spring semester! Attempting to secure a mandate for her vision of Brexit, May called a snap election for Parliament for June 2017. Instead of gaining a stronger hand for the Brexit negotiations, however, she saw her Conservative Party lose its governing majority in the House of Commons and become dependent on “confidence and supply” support from Northern Ireland’s Democratic Unionist Party (DUP). May’s objective of arriving at a cohesive approach for her government’s Brexit negotiations was further complicated by the wide disagreement that persisted within the Conservative Party both on details related to the British proposal for separation and on the broader issues involved. Despite forceful opposition by “hard” Brexiters, a consensus on the nuts and bolts of the government’s Brexit plan appeared to emerge from a marathon meeting of the cabinet in July at Chequers, the prime minister’s country retreat. The working document produced by that meeting committed Britain to “ongoing harmonization” with EU rules and called for the creation of a “joint institutional framework” under which agreements between the U.K. and the EU would be handled in the U.K. by British courts and in the EU by EU courts. Although the proposal mandated that Britain would regain control over how many people could enter the country, it also outlined a “mobility framework” that would permit British and EU citizens to apply for work and for study in each other’s territories. May’s “softer” approach, grounded in policies aimed at preserving economic ties with the EU, looked to have won the day, but in short order the government’s apparent harmony was disrupted by the resignations of Britain’s chief Brexit negotiator, David Davis (who complained that May’s plan gave up too much, too easily), and foreign secretary Johnson, who wrote in his letter of resignation that the dream of Brexit was being “suffocated by needless self-doubt.” Confronted with the possibility of a vote of confidence on her leadership of the Conservative Party, May reportedly warned fellow Tories to back her Brexit plan or risk handing power to a Jeremy Corbyn-led Labour government. In November the leaders of the EU’s other member countries formally agreed to the terms of a withdrawal deal (the Chequers plan) that May claimed “delivered for the British people” and set the United Kingdom “on course for a prosperous future.” Under the plan Britain was to satisfy its long-term financial obligations by paying some $50 billion to the EU. Britain’s departure from the EU was set for March 29, 2019, but, according to the agreement, the U.K. would continue to abide by EU rules and regulations until at least December 2020 while negotiations continued on the details of the long-term relationship between the EU and the U.K. The Northern Ireland backstop plan and the challenge to May’s leadership The agreement, which was scheduled for debate by the House of Commons in December, still faced strong opposition in Parliament, not only from Labour, the Liberal Democrats, the Scottish National Party, Plaid Cymru, and the DUP but also from many Conservatives. Meanwhile, a call for a new referendum on Brexit was gaining traction, but May adamantly refused to consider that option, countering that the British people had already expressed their will. The principal stumbling block for many of the agreement’s opponents was the so-called Northern Ireland backstop plan, which sought to preserve the spirit of the Good Friday Agreement by maintaining an open border between Northern Ireland and EU member Ireland after Brexit. The backstop plan called for a legally binding customs arrangement between the EU and Northern Ireland to go into effect should the U.K. and the EU not reach a long-term agreement by December 2020. Opponents of the backstop were concerned that it created the possibility of effectively establishing a customs border down the Irish Sea by setting up regulatory barriers between Northern Ireland and the rest of the U.K. The issue came to the fore in the first week of December, when the government was forced to publish in full Attorney General Geoffrey Cox’s legal advice for the government on the Brexit agreement. In Cox’s opinion, without agreement between the U.K. and the EU, the terms of the backstop plan could persist “indefinitely,” leaving Britain legally prevented from ending the agreement absent EU approval. This controversial issue loomed large as the House of Commons undertook five days of debate in advance of a vote on the Brexit agreement scheduled for December 11. With a humiliating rejection of the agreement by the House of Commons likely, on December 10 May chose to dramatically interrupt the debate after three days and postpone the vote, promising to pursue new assurances from the EU regarding the backstop. The opposition responded by threatening to hold a vote of confidence and to call for an early election, but a more immediate threat to May’s version of Brexit came when a hard-line Brexit faction within the Conservative Party forced a vote on her leadership. Needing the votes of 159 MPs to survive as leader, May received 200, and, under Conservative Party rules, she could not be challenged as party leader for another year. The longer it remained unsettled, the more the matter of Brexit became the defining issue of British politics. With opinions on May’s version of Brexit and on Brexit in general crossing ideological lines, both Labour and the Conservatives were roiling with internecine conflict. Theresa May Theresa May In pursuit of greater support in Parliament for her revised Brexit plan, May secured new promises of cooperation on the backstop plan from EU leaders. Agreement was reached on a “joint legally binding instrument” under which Britain could initiate a “formal dispute” with the EU if the EU were to attempt to keep Britain bound to the backstop plan indefinitely. Another “joint statement” committed the U.K. and the EU to arriving at a replacement for the backstop plan by December 2020. Moreover, a “unilateral declaration” by May’s government stressed that there was nothing to prevent the U.K. from abandoning the backstop should negotiations on an alternative arrangement with the EU collapse without the likelihood of resolution. According to Attorney General Cox, the new assurances reduced the risk of the U.K.’s being indefinitely confined by the backstop agreement, but they did not fundamentally change the agreement’s legal status. Ongoing opposition to May’s revised Brexit plan, deadline extensions, “indicative votes,” and May’s resignation On March 12 the House of Commons again rejected May’s plan (391–242), and the next day it voted 312–308 against a no-deal Brexit—that is, leaving the EU without a deal in place. On March 14 May barely survived a vote that would have robbed her of control of Brexit and given it to Parliament. On March 20 she asked the EU to extend the deadline for Britain’s departure to June 30. The EU responded by delaying the Brexit deadline until May 22 but only if Parliament had accepted May’s withdrawal plan by the week of March 24. In the meantime, on March 23 hundreds of thousands of demonstrators filled the streets of London demanding that another referendum on Brexit be held. On March 25 the House of Commons voted 329–302 to take control of Parliament’s agenda from the government so as to conduct “indicative votes” on alternative proposals to May’s plan. Eight of those proposals were voted upon on March 27. None of them gained majority support, though a plan that sought to create a “permanent and comprehensive U.K.-wide customs union with the EU” came within six votes of success. That same day May announced that she would resign as party leader and prime minister if the House of Commons were to approve her plan. On March 29 Speaker of the House John Bercow invoked a procedural rule that limited that day’s vote to the withdrawal agreement portion of May’s plan (thus excluding the “political declaration” that addressed the U.K. and EU’s long-term relationship). This time the vote was closer than previous votes had been (286 in support and 344 in opposition), but the plan still went down in defeat. Time was running out. By April 12 the U.K. had to decide whether it would leave the EU without an agreement on that day or request a longer delay that would require it to participate in elections for the European Parliament. May asked the EU to extend the deadline for Brexit until June 30, and on April 11 the European Council granted the U.K. a “flexible extension” until October 31. After failing to win sufficient support from Conservatives for her Brexit plan, May entered discussions with Labour leaders on a possible compromise, but these efforts also came up empty. May responded by proposing a new version of the plan that included a temporary customs relationship with the EU and a promise to hold a parliamentary vote on whether another referendum on Brexit should be staged. Her cabinet revolted, and on May 24 May announced that she would step down as party leader on June 7 but would remain as caretaker premier until the Conservatives had chosen her successor. Boris Johnson and the Brexit finish line Boris Johnson Boris Johnson Boris Johnson speaking at a Vote Leave rally in London, June 2016. May’s successor as party leader and prime minister, Boris Johnson, promised to remove the U.K. from the EU without an exit agreement if the deal May had negotiated was not altered to his satisfaction; however, he faced broad opposition (even among Conservatives) to his advocacy of a no-deal Brexit. Johnson’s political maneuvering (including proroguing Parliament just weeks before the revised October 31 departure deadline) was strongly countered by legislative measures advanced by those opposed to leaving the EU without an agreement in place. In early September a vote of the House of Commons forced the new prime minister to request a delay of the British withdrawal from the EU until January 31, 2020, despite the fact that on October 22 the House approved, in principle, the agreement that Johnson had negotiated, which replaced the backstop with the so-called Northern Ireland Protocol, a plan to keep Northern Ireland aligned with the EU for at least four years from the end of the transition period. Boris Johnson Boris Johnson Boris Johnson speaks at a cabinet meeting in 2021. In search of a mandate for his vision of Brexit, Johnson tried and failed several times to call a snap election. Because the election would fall outside the five-year term stipulated by the Fixed Terms of Parliament Act, Johnson needed opposition support to achieve the approval of two-thirds of the House of Commons required for the election to be held. Finally, after the possibility of no-deal Brexit was blocked, Labour leader Corbyn agreed to allow British voters once again to decide the fate of Brexit. In the election, held on December 12, 2019, the Conservatives recorded their most decisive victory since 1987, adding 48 seats to secure a solid Parliamentary majority of 365 seats and setting the stage for the realization of a Johnson-style Brexit. At 11:00 pm London time on January 31, the United Kingdom formally withdrew from the European Union. The freedom to work and move freely between the U.K. and the EU became a thing of the past. Although Britain’s formal departure from the EU was completed, final details relating to a new trade deal between the U.K. and the EU remained to be resolved. On December 24, 2020, the December 31 deadline for that resolution was only barely met. The resultant 2,000-page agreement clarified that there would be no limits or taxes on goods sold between U.K. and EU parties; however, an extensive regimen of paperwork for such transactions and transport of goods was put in place. In June 2022 Johnson sought to jettison part of the trade agreement, introducing legislation in Parliament that would remove checks on goods entering Northern Ireland from elsewhere in the U.K. The Johnson government averred that overly stringent application of the customs rules by the EU was undermining business and threatening peace in Northern Ireland. Unionists had complained that these customs checks were jeopardizing Northern Ireland’s relationship with the rest of the U.K., and the DUP refused to re-enter Northern Ireland’s power-sharing executive until the checks were eliminated. Opponents of Johnson’s action, including May, argued that the move was illegal, and the EU threatened retaliation. European Union Article Talk Read View source View history Tools Page semi-protected From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia "EU" redirects here. For other uses, see EU (disambiguation). This article is about the principal framework for European political integration since World War II. For a more general description of the same phenomenon, which also includes other organisations established in the same period, see European integration. European Union (in other official languages) Circle of 12 gold stars on a blue background Flag Motto: "In Varietate Concordia" (Latin) "United in Diversity" Anthem: "Anthem of Europe" Duration: 1 minute and 1 second.1:01 Show globe Show special territories Show all Location of the European Union (dark green) in Europe (dark grey) Capital Brussels (de facto)[1] Institutional seats Brussels Frankfurt Luxembourg Strasbourg Largest metropolis Paris Official languages 24 languages Official scripts LatinGreekCyrillic Religion (2015)[2] 71.6% Christianity 45.3% Catholic 11.1% Protestant 9.6% Eastern Orthodox 5.6% other Christian 24.0% no religion 1.8% Islam 2.6% other Demonym(s) European Type Continental union Membership 27 members Government Mixed intergovernmental directorial parliamentary confederation • President of the European Council Charles Michel • President of the Commission Ursula von der Leyen • Presidency of the Council of the European Union  Belgium[3] • President of the European Parliament Roberta Metsola Legislature The European Parliament and the Council • Upper house Council of the European Union • Lower house European Parliament Formation[4] • Treaty of Paris 18 April 1951 • Treaty of Rome 1 January 1958 • Single European Act 1 July 1987 • Treaty of Maastricht 1 November 1993 • Treaty of Lisbon 1 December 2009 Area • Total 4,233,262 km2 (1,634,472 sq mi) • Water (%) 3.08 Population • 2023 estimate Neutral increase 448,387,872[5] • Density 106/km2 (274.5/sq mi) GDP (PPP) 2023 estimate • Total Increase $25.399 trillion[6] • Per capita Increase $56,928[6] GDP (nominal) 2023 estimate • Total Increase $17.818 trillion[6] • Per capita Increase $39,940 Gini (2020) Positive decrease 30.0[7] medium Currency Euro (€) (EUR) Others Time zone UTC to UTC+2 (WET, CET, EET) • Summer (DST) UTC+1 to UTC+3 (WEST, CEST, EEST) (see also Summer time in Europe)[a] Internet TLD .eu, .ею, .ευ[b] Website europa.eu The European Union (EU) is a supranational political and economic union of 27 member states that are located primarily in Europe.[8][9] The Union has a total area of 4,233,255 km2 (1,634,469 sq mi) and an estimated total population of over 448 million. The EU has often been described as a sui generis political entity (without precedent or comparison) combining the characteristics of both a federation and a confederation.[10][11] Containing 5.8% of the world population in 2020,[c] EU member states generated a nominal gross domestic product (GDP) of around US$16.6 trillion in 2022, constituting approximately one sixth of global nominal GDP.[13] Additionally, all EU states except Bulgaria have a very high Human Development Index according to the United Nations Development Programme. Its cornerstone, the Customs Union, paved the way to establishing an internal single market based on standardised legal framework and legislation that applies in all member states in those matters, and only those matters, where the states have agreed to act as one. EU policies aim to ensure the free movement of people, goods, services and capital within the internal market;[14] enact legislation in justice and home affairs; and maintain common policies on trade,[15] agriculture,[16] fisheries and regional development.[17] Passport controls have been abolished for travel within the Schengen Area.[18] The eurozone is a group composed of the 20 EU member states that have fully implemented the economic and monetary union and use the euro currency. Through the Common Foreign and Security Policy, the union has developed a role in external relations and defence. It maintains permanent diplomatic missions throughout the world and represents itself at the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the G7 and the G20. Due to its global influence, the European Union has been described by some scholars as an emerging superpower.[19][20][21] The EU was established, along with its citizenship, when the Maastricht Treaty came into force in 1993, and was incorporated as an international legal juridical person[clarification needed] upon entry into force of the Treaty of Lisbon in 2009.[22] Its beginnings can be traced to the Inner Six states (Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and West Germany) at the start of modern European integration in 1948, and to the W/Union, the International Authority for the Ruhr, the European Coal and Steel Community, the European Economic Community and the European Atomic Energy Community, which were established by treaties. These increasingly amalgamated bodies grew, with their legal successor the EU, both in size through the accessions of a further 22 states from 1973 to 2013, and in power through acquisitions of policy areas. In 2012, the EU was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize.[23] The United Kingdom became the only member state to leave the EU, in 2020;[24] ten countries are aspiring or negotiating to join it. Etymology Main article: Europe This paragraph is an excerpt from Europe § Name.[edit] The place name Evros was first used by the ancient Greeks to refer to their northernmost province, which bears the same name today. The principal river there – Evros (today's Maritsa) – flows through the fertile valleys of Thrace,[25] which it self was also called Europe, before the term meant the continent.[26] History Main article: History of the European Union For a chronological guide, see Timeline of European Union history. Further information: Treaties of the European Union and European integration Background: World Wars and aftermath Further information: Ideas of European unity before 1948 Internationalism and visions of European unity had been around since well before the 19th century, but gained particularly as a reaction to World War I and its aftermath. In this light first advances for the idea of European integration were made. In 1920 John Maynard Keynes proposed a European customs union for the struggling post-war European economies,[27] and in 1923 the oldest organization for European integration, the Paneuropean Union was founded, led by Richard von Coudenhove-Kalergi, who later would found in June 1947 the European Parliamentary Union (EPU). As French prime minister and follower of the Paneuropean Union Aristide Briand (Nobel Peace Prize laureate for the Locarno Treaties) delivered a widely recognized speech at the League of Nations in Geneva on 5 September 1929 for a federal Europe to secure Europe and settle the historic Franco-German enmity.[28][29] With large scale war being waged in Europe once again in the 1930s and becoming World War II, the question of what to fight against and what for, had to be agreed on. A first agreement was the Declaration of St James's Palace of 1941, when Europe's resistance gathered in London. This was expanded on by the 1941 Atlantic Charter, establishing the Allies and their common goals, inciting a new wave of global international institutions like the United Nations (founded 1945) or the Bretton Woods System (1944).[30] During the 1943 Moscow Conference and Tehran Conference plans to establish joint institutions for a post-war world and Europe became increasingly an agenda. This led to a decision at the Yalta Conference in 1944 to form a European Advisory Commission, later replaced by the Council of Foreign Ministers and the Allied Control Council, following the German surrender and the Potsdam Agreement in 1945. By the end of the war European integration became seen as an antidote to the extreme nationalism which caused the war.[31] On 19 September 1946 in a much recognized speech Winston Churchill reiterated his calls since 1930 for a "European Union" and "Council of Europe", at the University of Zürich, coincidentally[32] parallel to the Hertenstein Congress of the Union of European Federalists,[33] one of the then founded and later constituting members of the European Movement. One month later the French Union was installed by the new Fourth French Republic to direct the decolonization of its colonies so that they would become parts of a European community.[34] Though by 1947 a growing rift between the western Allied Powers and the Soviet Union became evident as a result of the rigged 1947 Polish legislative election, which constituted an open breach of the Yalta Agreement. This was followed by the announcement of the Truman Doctrine on 12 March 1947, and on 4 March 1947, the signing of the Treaty of Dunkirk between France and the United Kingdom for mutual assistance, in the event of future military aggression against any of the pair. The rationale for the treaty was the threat of a potential future military attack, specifically a Soviet one in practice, though publicised under the disguise of a German one, according to the official statements. Immediately following the February 1948 coup d'état by the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia, the London Six-Power Conference was held, resulting in the Soviet boycott of the Allied Control Council and its incapacitation, an event marking the beginning of the Cold War. The remainder of the year 1948 marked the beginning of institutionalised European integration. Initial years and the Paris Treaty (1948‍–‍1957) Main article: History of European integration (1948–1957) Duration: 28 seconds.0:28Subtitles available.CC An excerpt of the Schuman Declaration, by Robert Schuman on the 9 May 1950 (Europe Day) Treaty of Paris (1951), establishing the ECSC The year 1948 marked the beginning of the institutionalised modern European integration. In March 1948 the Treaty of Brussels was signed, establishing the W/Union (WU), followed by the International Authority for the Ruhr. Furthermore, the Organisation for European Economic Co-operation (OEEC), the predecessor of the OECD, was also founded in 1948 to manage the Marshall Plan, triggering as a Soviet response formation of the Comecon. The ensuing Hague Congress of May 1948 was a pivotal moment in European integration, as it led to the creation of the European Movement International, the College of Europe[35] and most importantly to the foundation of the Council of Europe on 5 May 1949 (which is now Europe day). The Council of Europe was one of the first institutions to bring the sovereign nations of (then only Western) Europe together, raising great hopes and fevered debates in the following two years for further European integration.[citation needed] It has since been a broad forum to further cooperation and shared issues, achieving for example the European Convention on Human Rights in 1950. Essential for the actual birth of the institutions of the EU was the Schuman Declaration on 9 May 1950 (the day after the fifth Victory in Europe Day) and the decision by six nations (France, Belgium, Netherlands, Luxembourg, West Germany and Italy) to follow Schuman and draft the Treaty of Paris. This treaty was created in 1952 the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), which was built on the International Authority for the Ruhr, installed by the Western Allies in 1949 to regulate the coal and steel industries of the Ruhr area in West Germany.[36] Backed by the Marshall Plan with large funds coming from the United States since 1948, the ECSC became a milestone organization, enabling European economic development and integration and being the origin of the main institutions of the EU such as the European Commission and Parliament.[37] Founding fathers of the European Union understood that coal and steel were the two industries essential for waging war, and believed that by tying their national industries together, a future war between their nations became much less likely.[38] In parallel with Schuman, the Pleven Plan of 1951 tried but failed to tie the institutions of the developing European community under the European Political Community, which was to include the also proposed European Defence Community, an alternative to West Germany joining NATO which was established in 1949 under the Truman Doctrine. In 1954 the Modified Brussels Treaty transformed the WUnion into the Western European Union (WEU). West Germany eventually joined both the WEU and NATO in 1955, prompting the Soviet Union to form the Warsaw Pact in 1955 as an institutional framework for its military domination in the countries of Central and Eastern Europe. Assessing the progress of European integration the Messina Conference was held in 1955, ordering the Spaak report, which in 1956 recommended the next significant steps of European integration. Treaty of Rome (1958‍–‍1972) Main article: History of the European Communities (1958–1972) Signing ceremony of the Treaty of Rome (1957), establishing the ECC In 1957, Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and West Germany signed the Treaty of Rome, which created the European Economic Community (EEC) and established a customs union. They also signed another pact creating the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom) for cooperation in developing nuclear power. Both treaties came into force in 1958.[38] Although the EEC and Euratom were created separately from the ECSC, they shared the same courts and the Common Assembly. The EEC was headed by Walter Hallstein (Hallstein Commission) and Euratom was headed by Louis Armand (Armand Commission) and then Étienne Hirsch (Hirsch Commission).[39][40] The OEEC was in turn reformed in 1961 into the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and its membership was extended to states outside of Europe, the United States and Canada. During the 1960s, tensions began to show, with France seeking to limit supranational power. Nevertheless, in 1965 an agreement was reached, and on 1 July 1967 the Merger Treaty created a single set of institutions for the three communities, which were collectively referred to as the European Communities.[41][42] Jean Rey presided over the first merged commission (Rey Commission).[43] First enlargement and European co-operation (1973‍–‍1993) Main article: History of the European Communities (1973–1993) Gerald Ford and the American delegation at the CSCE (1975) In 1973, the communities were enlarged to include Denmark (including Greenland), Ireland, and the United Kingdom.[44] Norway had negotiated to join at the same time, but Norwegian voters rejected membership in a referendum. The Ostpolitik and the ensuing détente led to establishment of a first truly pan-European body, the Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe (CSCE), predecessor of the modern Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE). In 1979, the first direct elections to the European Parliament were held.[45] Greece joined in 1981. In 1985, Greenland left the Communities, following a dispute over fishing rights. During the same year, the Schengen Agreement paved the way for the creation of open borders without passport controls between most member states and some non-member states.[46] In 1986, the Single European Act was signed. Portugal and Spain joined in 1986.[47] In 1990, after the fall of the Eastern Bloc, the former East Germany became part of the communities as part of a reunified Germany.[48] Treaties of Maastricht, Amsterdam and Nice (1993‍–‍2004) Main article: History of the European Union (1993–2004) Maastricht Treaty (1992), establishing the EU The European Union was formally established when the Maastricht Treaty—whose main architects were Horst Köhler,[49] Helmut Kohl and François Mitterrand—came into force on 1 November 1993.[22][50] The treaty also gave the name European Community to the EEC, even if it was referred to as such before the treaty. With further enlargement planned to include the former communist states of Central and Eastern Europe, as well as Cyprus and Malta, the Copenhagen criteria for candidate members to join the EU were agreed upon in June 1993. The expansion of the EU introduced a new level of complexity and discord.[51] In 1995, Austria, Finland, and Sweden joined the EU. In 2002, euro banknotes and coins replaced national currencies in 12 of the member states. Since then, the eurozone has increased to encompass 20 countries. The euro currency became the second-largest reserve currency in the world. In 2004, the EU saw its biggest enlargement to date when Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia, and Slovenia joined the union.[52] Treaty of Lisbon and Brexit (2004‍–‍present) Main article: History of the European Union (2004–present) Signing ceremony of the Treaty of Lisbon (2007) The ancient Roman Agora in Athens illuminated with a Next Generation EU sign In 2007, Bulgaria and Romania became EU members. Later that year, Slovenia adopted the euro,[52] followed by Cyprus and Malta in 2008, Slovakia in 2009, Estonia in 2011, Latvia in 2014, and Lithuania in 2015. On 1 December 2009, the Lisbon Treaty entered into force and reformed many aspects of the EU. In particular, it changed the legal structure of the European Union, merging the EU three pillars system into a single legal entity provisioned with a legal personality, created a permanent president of the European Council, the first of which was Herman Van Rompuy, and strengthened the position of the high representative of the union for foreign affairs and security policy.[53][54] In 2012, the EU received the Nobel Peace Prize for having "contributed to the advancement of peace and reconciliation, democracy, and human rights in Europe".[55][56] In 2013, Croatia became the 28th EU member.[57] From the beginning of the 2010s, the cohesion of the European Union has been tested by several issues, including a debt crisis in some of the Eurozone countries, increasing migration from Africa and Asia, and the United Kingdom's withdrawal from the EU.[58] A referendum in the UK on its membership of the European Union was held in 2016, with 51.9 per cent of participants voting to leave.[59] The UK formally notified the European Council of its decision to leave on 29 March 2017, initiating the formal withdrawal procedure for leaving the EU; following extensions to the process, the UK left the European Union on 31 January 2020, though most areas of EU law continued to apply to the UK for a transition period which lasted until 31 December 2020.[60] The early 2020s saw Denmark abolishing one of its three opt-outs and Croatia adopting the Euro. After the economic crisis caused by the COVID-19 pandemic, the EU leaders agreed for the first time to create common debt to finance the European Recovery Program called Next Generation EU (NGEU).[61] On 24 February 2022, after massing on the borders of Ukraine, the Russian Armed Forces undertook an attempt for a full-scale invasion of Ukraine.[62][63] The European Union imposed heavy sanctions on Russia and agreed on a pooled military aid package to Ukraine for lethal weapons funded via the European Peace Facility off-budget instrument.[64] Preparing the Union for a new great enlargement is a political priority for the Union, with the goal of achieving over 35 member states by 2030. Institutional and budgetary reforms are being discussed in order to the Union to be ready for the new members.[65][66][67][68] Timeline Since the end of World War II, sovereign European countries have entered into treaties and thereby co-operated and harmonised policies (or pooled sovereignty) in an increasing number of areas, in the European integration project or the construction of Europe (French: la construction européenne). The following timeline outlines the legal inception of the European Union (EU)—the principal framework for this unification. The EU inherited many of its present responsibilities from the European Communities (EC), which were founded in the 1950s in the spirit of the Schuman Declaration. Legend:   S: signing   F: entry into force   T: termination   E: expiry     de facto supersession   Rel. w/ EC/EU framework:    de facto inside    outside European Union (EU) [Cont.]    European Communities (EC) (Pillar I) European Atomic Energy Community (EAEC or Euratom) [Cont.]        /  /  /  European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) (Distr. of competences)   European Economic Community (EEC)     Schengen Rules European Community (EC) 'TREVI' Justice and Home Affairs (JHA, pillar II)     /  North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) [Cont.] Police and Judicial Co-operation in Criminal Matters (PJCC, pillar II)   Anglo-French alliance [Defence arm handed to NATO] European Political Co-operation (EPC) Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP, pillar III)  WUnion (WU) /  Western European Union (WEU) [Tasks defined following the WEU's 1984 reactivation handed to the EU]     [Social, cultural tasks handed to CoE] [Cont.] vte   Council of Europe (CoE) Entente Cordiale S: 8 April 1904 Dunkirk Treaty[i] S: 4 March 1947 F: 8 September 1947 E: 8 September 1997 Brussels Treaty[i] S: 17 March 1948 F: 25 August 1948 T: 30 June 2011 London and Washington treaties[i] S: 5 May/4 April 1949 F: 3 August/24 August 1949 Paris treaties: ECSC and EDC[ii] S: 18 April 1951/27 May 1952 F: 23 July 1952/— E: 23 July 2002/— Protocol Modifying and Completing the Brussels Treaty[i] S: 23 October 1954 F: 6 May 1955 Rome treaties: EEC and EAEC S: 25 March 1957 F: 1 January 1958 WEU-CoE agreement[i] S: 21 October 1959 F: 1 January 1960 Brussels (Merger) Treaty[iii] S: 8 April 1965 F: 1 July 1967 Davignon report S: 27 October 1970 European Council conclusions S: 2 December 1975 Single European Act (SEA) S: 17/28 February 1986 F: 1 July 1987 Schengen Treaty and Convention S: 14 June 1985/19 June 1990 F: 26 March 1995 Maastricht Treaty[iv][v] S: 7 February 1992 F: 1 November 1993 Amsterdam Treaty S: 2 October 1997 F: 1 May 1999 Nice Treaty S: 26 February 2001 F: 1 February 2003 Lisbon Treaty[vi] S: 13 December 2007 F: 1 December 2009 Politics Main article: Politics of the European Union The European Union operates through a hybrid system of supranational and intergovernmental decision-making,[69][70] and according to the principle of conferral (which says that it should act only within the limits of the competences conferred on it by the treaties) and of subsidiarity (which says that it should act only where an objective cannot be sufficiently achieved by the member states acting alone). Laws made by the EU institutions are passed in a variety of forms.[71] Generally speaking, they can be classified into two groups: those which come into force without the necessity for national implementation measures (regulations) and those which specifically require national implementation measures (directives).[d] EU policy is in general promulgated by EU directives, which are then implemented in the domestic legislation of its member states, and EU regulations, which are immediately enforceable in all member states. Lobbying at the EU level by special interest groups is regulated to try to balance the aspirations of private initiatives with public interest decision-making process.[72] Budget Main article: Budget of the European Union EU funding programmes 2014–2020 (€1,087 billion)[73]   Sustainable Growth/Natural Resources (38.6%)   Competitiveness for Growth and Jobs (13.1%)   Global Europe (6.1%)   Economic, Territorial and Social Cohesion (34.1%)   Administration (6.4%)   Security and Citizenship (1.7%) The European Union had an agreed budget of €170.6 billion in 2022, The EU had a long-term budget of €1,082.5 billion for the period 2014–2020, representing 1.02% of the EU-28's GNI. In 1960, the budget of the European Community was 0.03 per cent of GDP.[74] Of this, €54bn subsidised agriculture enterprise, €42bn was spent on transport, building and the environment, €16bn on education and research, €13bn on welfare, €20bn on foreign and defence policy, €2bn in finance, €2bn in energy, €1.5bn in communications, and €13bn in administration. In November 2020, two members of the union, Hungary and Poland, blocked approval to the EU's budget at a meeting in the Committee of Permanent Representatives (Coreper), citing a proposal that linked funding with adherence to the rule of law. The budget included a COVID-19 recovery fund of €750 billion. The budget may still be approved if Hungary and Poland withdraw their vetoes after further negotiations in the council and the European Council.[75][76][needs update] Bodies combatting fraud have also been established, including the European Anti-fraud Office and the European Public Prosecutor's Office. The latter is a decentralized independent body of the European Union (EU), established under the Treaty of Lisbon between 22 of the 27 states of the EU following the method of enhanced cooperation.[77] The European Public Prosecutor's Office investigate and prosecute fraud against the budget of the European Union and other crimes against the EU's financial interests including fraud concerning EU funds of over €10,000 and cross-border VAT fraud cases involving damages above €10 million. Governance Main articles: Bodies of the European Union and the Euratom, Institutions of the European Union, and Subsidiarity (European Union) § EU competences Member states retain in principle all powers except those that they have agreed collectively to delegate to the Union as a whole, though the exact delimitation has on occasions become a subject of scholarly or legal disputes.[citation needed] In certain fields, members have awarded exclusive competence and exclusive mandate to the Union. These are areas in which member states have entirely renounced their own capacity to enact legislation. In other areas, the EU and its member states share the competence to legislate. While both can legislate, the member states can only legislate to the extent to which the EU has not. In other policy areas, the EU can only co-ordinate, support and supplement member state action but cannot enact legislation with the aim of harmonising national laws.[78] That a particular policy area falls into a certain category of competence is not necessarily indicative of what legislative procedure is used for enacting legislation within that policy area. Different legislative procedures are used within the same category of competence, and even with the same policy area. The distribution of competences in various policy areas between member states and the union is divided into the following three categories: Foreign relations Main article: Foreign relations of the European Union See also: European External Action Service Portrait of Josep Borrell Josep Borrell, High Representative for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy Foreign policy co-operation between member states dates from the establishment of the community in 1957, when member states negotiated as a bloc in international trade negotiations under the EU's common commercial policy.[107] Steps for more wide-ranging co-ordination in foreign relations began in 1970 with the establishment of European Political Cooperation which created an informal consultation process between member states with the aim of forming common foreign policies. In 1987 the European Political Cooperation was introduced on a formal basis by the Single European Act. EPC was renamed as the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) by the Maastricht Treaty.[108] The stated aims of the CFSP are to promote both the EU's own interests and those of the international community as a whole, including the furtherance of international co-operation, respect for human rights, democracy, and the rule of law.[109] The CFSP requires unanimity among the member states on the appropriate policy to follow on any particular issue. The unanimity and difficult issues treated under the CFSP sometimes lead to disagreements, such as those which occurred over the war in Iraq.[110] The coordinator and representative of the CFSP within the EU is the high representative of the union for foreign affairs and security policy who speaks on behalf of the EU in foreign policy and defence matters, and has the task of articulating the positions expressed by the member states on these fields of policy into a common alignment. The high representative heads up the European External Action Service (EEAS), a unique EU department[111] that has been officially implemented and operational since 1 December 2010 on the occasion of the first anniversary of the entry into force of the Treaty of Lisbon.[112] The EEAS serves as a foreign ministry and diplomatic corps for the European Union.[113] Besides the emerging international policy of the European Union, the international influence of the EU is also felt through enlargement. The perceived benefits of becoming a member of the EU act as an incentive for both political and economic reform in states wishing to fulfil the EU's accession criteria, and are considered an important factor contributing to the reform of European formerly Communist countries.[114]: 762  This influence on the internal affairs of other countries is generally referred to as "soft power", as opposed to military "hard power".[115] Humanitarian aid Further information: Directorate-General for European Civil Protection and Humanitarian Aid Operations The European Commission's Humanitarian Aid and Civil Protection department, or "ECHO", provides humanitarian aid from the EU to developing countries. In 2012, its budget amounted to €874 million, 51 per cent of the budget went to Africa and 20 per cent to Asia, Latin America, the Caribbean and Pacific, and 20 per cent to the Middle East and Mediterranean.[116] Humanitarian aid is financed directly by the budget (70 per cent) as part of the financial instruments for external action and also by the European Development Fund (30 per cent).[117] The EU's external action financing is divided into 'geographic' instruments and 'thematic' instruments.[117] The 'geographic' instruments provide aid through the Development Cooperation Instrument (DCI, €16.9 billion, 2007–2013), which must spend 95 per cent of its budget on official development assistance (ODA), and from the European Neighbourhood and Partnership Instrument (ENPI), which contains some relevant programmes.[117] The European Development Fund (EDF, €22.7 billion for the period 2008–2013 and €30.5 billion for the period 2014–2020) is made up of voluntary contributions by member states, but there is pressure to merge the EDF into the budget-financed instruments to encourage increased contributions to match the 0.7 per cent target and allow the European Parliament greater oversight.[117][118] In 2016, the average among EU countries was 0.4 per cent and five had met or exceeded the 0.7 per cent target: Denmark, Germany, Luxembourg, Sweden and the United Kingdom.[119] International cooperation and development partnerships Main articles: Directorate-General for International Partnerships, ACP–EU development cooperation, European Solidarity Corps, European Union Global Strategy, European Neighbourhood Policy, Global Europe, and European Political Community Eastern Partnership Summit 2017, Brussels The European Union uses foreign relations instruments like the European Neighbourhood Policy which seeks to tie those countries to the east and south of the European territory of the EU to the union. These countries, primarily developing countries, include some who seek to one day become either a member state of the European Union, or more closely integrated with the European Union. The EU offers financial assistance to countries within the European Neighbourhood, so long as they meet the strict conditions of government reform, economic reform and other issues surrounding positive transformation. This process is normally underpinned by an Action Plan, as agreed by both Brussels and the target country. Union for the Mediterranean meeting in Barcelona There is also the worldwide European Union Global Strategy. International recognition of sustainable development as a key element is growing steadily. Its role was recognised in three major UN summits on sustainable development: the 1992 UN Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) in Johannesburg, South Africa; and the 2012 UN Conference on Sustainable Development (UNCSD) in Rio de Janeiro. Other key global agreements are the Paris Agreement and the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (United Nations, 2015). The SDGs recognise that all countries must stimulate action in the following key areas – people, planet, prosperity, peace and partnership – in order to tackle the global challenges that are crucial for the survival of humanity. EU development action is based on the European Consensus on Development, which was endorsed on 20 December 2005 by EU Member States, the council, the European Parliament and the commission.[120] It is applied from the principles of Capability approach and Rights-based approach to development. Funding is provided by the Instrument for Pre-Accession Assistance and the Global Europe programmes. Partnership and cooperation agreements are bilateral agreements with non-member nations.[121] Defence Main article: Common Security and Defence Policy See also: Frontex, European Defence Agency, European Union Institute for Security Studies, and European Union Satellite Centre Map showing European membership of the EU and NATO   EU member only   NATO member only   EU and NATO member Coat of arms of the Military Staff The predecessors of the European Union were not devised as a military alliance because NATO was largely seen as appropriate and sufficient for defence purposes.[122] 22 EU members are members of NATO[123] and Sweden is in the process of accession while the remaining member states follow policies of neutrality.[124] The Western European Union, a military alliance with a mutual defence clause, closed in 2011[125] as its role had been transferred to the EU.[126] Following the Kosovo War in 1999, the European Council agreed that "the Union must have the capacity for autonomous action, backed by credible military forces, the means to decide to use them, and the readiness to do so, in order to respond to international crises without prejudice to actions by NATO". To that end, a number of efforts were made to increase the EU's military capability, notably the Helsinki Headline Goal process. After much discussion, the most concrete result was the EU Battlegroups initiative, each of which is planned to be able to deploy quickly about 1500 personnel.[127] The EU Strategic Compass adopted in 2022 reaffirmed the bloc's partnership with NATO, committed to increased military mobility and formation of a 5,000-strong EU Rapid Deployment Capacity[128] Since the withdrawal of the United Kingdom, France is the only member officially recognised as a nuclear weapon state and the sole holder of a permanent seat on the United Nations Security Council. France and Italy are also the only EU countries that have power projection capabilities outside of Europe.[129] Italy, Germany, the Netherlands and Belgium participate in NATO nuclear sharing.[130] Most EU member states opposed the Nuclear Weapon Ban Treaty.[131] EU forces have been deployed on peacekeeping missions from middle and northern Africa to the western Balkans and western Asia.[132] EU military operations are supported by a number of bodies, including the European Defence Agency, European Union Satellite Centre and the European Union Military Staff.[133] The European Union Military Staff is the highest military institution of the European Union, established within the framework of the European Council, and follows on from the decisions of the Helsinki European Council (10–11 December 1999), which called for the establishment of permanent political-military institutions. The European Union Military Staff is under the authority of the High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy and the Political and Security Committee. It directs all military activities in the EU context, including planning and conducting military missions and operations in the framework of the Common Security and Defence Policy and the development of military capabilities, and provides the Political and Security Committee with military advice and recommendations on military issues. In an EU consisting of 27 members, substantial security and defence co-operation is increasingly relying on collaboration among all member states.[134] The European Border and Coast Guard Agency (Frontex) is an agency of the EU aiming to detect and stop illegal immigration, human trafficking and terrorist infiltration.[135] The EU also operates the European Travel Information and Authorisation System, the Entry/Exit System, the Schengen Information System, the Visa Information System and the Common European Asylum System which provide common databases for police and immigration authorities. The impetus for the development of this co-operation was the advent of open borders in the Schengen Area and the associated cross-border crime.[18] Member states Main article: Member state of the European Union Map showing the member states of the European Union (clickable) Through successive enlargements, the EU and its predecessors have grown from the six founding states of the EEC to 27 members. Countries accede to the union by becoming a party to the founding treaties, thereby subjecting themselves to the privileges and obligations of EU membership. This entails a partial delegation of sovereignty to the institutions in return for representation within those institutions, a practice often referred to as "pooling of sovereignty".[136][137] In some policies, there are several member states that ally with strategic partners within the union. Examples of such alliances include the Baltic Assembly, the Benelux Union, the Bucharest Nine, the Craiova Group, the EU Med Group, the Lublin Triangle, the New Hanseatic League, the Three Seas Initiative, the Visegrád Group, and the Weimar Triangle. To become a member, a country must meet the Copenhagen criteria, defined at the 1993 meeting of the European Council in Copenhagen. These require a stable democracy that respects human rights and the rule of law; a functioning market economy; and the acceptance of the obligations of membership, including EU law. Evaluation of a country's fulfilment of the criteria is the responsibility of the European Council.[138] The four countries forming the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) are not EU members, but have partly committed to the EU's economy and regulations: Iceland, Liechtenstein and Norway, which are a part of the single market through the European Economic Area, and Switzerland, which has similar ties through bilateral treaties.[139][140] The relationships of the European microstates, Andorra, Monaco, San Marino, and Vatican City include the use of the euro and other areas of co-operation.[141] List of member states State Accession to EU Accession to EU predecessor Population[j][142] Area Population density MEPs People/MEP  Austria 1 January 1995 8,978,929 83,855 km2 (32,377 sq mi) 107/km2 (280/sq mi) 19 472575  Belgium Founder (1993) 23 July 1952 11,617,623 30,528 km2 (11,787 sq mi) 381/km2 (990/sq mi) 21 553220  Bulgaria 1 January 2007 6,838,937 110,994 km2 (42,855 sq mi) 62/km2 (160/sq mi) 17 402290  Croatia 1 July 2013 3,862,305 56,594 km2 (21,851 sq mi) 68/km2 (180/sq mi) 12 321859  Cyprus 1 May 2004 904,705 9,251 km2 (3,572 sq mi) 98/km2 (250/sq mi) 6 150784  Czech Republic 1 May 2004 10,516,707 78,866 km2 (30,450 sq mi) 133/km2 (340/sq mi) 21 500796  Denmark Founder (1993) 1 January 1973 5,873,420 43,075 km2 (16,631 sq mi) 136/km2 (350/sq mi) 14 419530  Estonia 1 May 2004 1,331,796 45,227 km2 (17,462 sq mi) 29/km2 (75/sq mi) 7 190257  Finland 1 January 1995 5,548,241 338,424 km2 (130,666 sq mi) 16/km2 (41/sq mi) 14 396303  France Founder (1993) 23 July 1952 67,871,925 640,679 km2 (247,368 sq mi) 106/km2 (270/sq mi) 79 859138  Germany Founder (1993) 23 July 1952[k] 83,237,124 357,021 km2 (137,847 sq mi) 233/km2 (600/sq mi) 96 867053  Greece Founder (1993) 1 January 1981 10,459,782 131,990 km2 (50,960 sq mi) 79/km2 (200/sq mi) 21 498085  Hungary 1 May 2004 9,689,010 93,030 km2 (35,920 sq mi) 104/km2 (270/sq mi) 21 461381  Ireland Founder (1993) 1 January 1973 5,060,004 70,273 km2 (27,133 sq mi) 72/km2 (190/sq mi) 13 389231  Italy Founder (1993) 23 July 1952 59,030,133 301,338 km2 (116,347 sq mi) 196/km2 (510/sq mi) 76 776712  Latvia 1 May 2004 1,875,757 64,589 km2 (24,938 sq mi) 29/km2 (75/sq mi) 8 234470  Lithuania 1 May 2004 2,805,998 65,200 km2 (25,200 sq mi) 43/km2 (110/sq mi) 11 255091  Luxembourg Founder (1993) 23 July 1952 645,397 2,586 km2 (998 sq mi) 250/km2 (650/sq mi) 6 107566  Malta 1 May 2004 520,971 316 km2 (122 sq mi) 1,649/km2 (4,270/sq mi) 6 86829  Netherlands Founder (1993) 23 July 1952 17,590,672 41,543 km2 (16,040 sq mi) 423/km2 (1,100/sq mi) 29 606575  Poland 1 May 2004 37,654,247 312,685 km2 (120,728 sq mi) 120/km2 (310/sq mi) 52 724120  Portugal Founder (1993) 1 January 1986 10,352,042 92,390 km2 (35,670 sq mi) 112/km2 (290/sq mi) 21 492954  Romania 1 January 2007 19,042,455 238,391 km2 (92,043 sq mi) 80/km2 (210/sq mi) 33 577044  Slovakia 1 May 2004 5,434,712 49,035 km2 (18,933 sq mi) 111/km2 (290/sq mi) 14 388194  Slovenia 1 May 2004 2,107,180 20,273 km2 (7,827 sq mi) 104/km2 (270/sq mi) 8 263398  Spain Founder (1993) 1 January 1986 47,432,893 504,030 km2 (194,610 sq mi) 94/km2 (240/sq mi) 59 803947  Sweden 1 January 1995 10,452,326 449,964 km2 (173,732 sq mi) 23/km2 (60/sq mi) 21 497730 27 total 446,735,291 4,233,262 km2 (1,634,472 sq mi) 106/km2 (270/sq mi) 705 633667 Subdivisions Main article: Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics Subdivisions of member-states are based on the Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics (NUTS), a geocode standard for statistical purposes. The standard, adopted in 2003, is developed and regulated by the European Union, and thus only covers the member states of the EU in detail. The Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics is instrumental in the European Union's Structural Funds and Cohesion Fund delivery mechanisms and for locating the area where goods and services subject to European public procurement legislation are to be delivered. Maps of Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics (NUTS) subdivisions (prior to 2018, including non-EU member states) NUTS 1 NUTS 1   NUTS 2 NUTS 2   NUTS 3 NUTS 3 Schengen Area Main article: Schengen Area Map of the Schengen Area   Schengen Area   Countries de facto participating   Members of the EU committed by treaty to join the Schengen Area in the future The Schengen Area is an area comprising 27 European countries that have officially abolished all passport and all other types of border control at their mutual borders. Being an element within the wider area of freedom, security and justice policy of the EU, it mostly functions as a single jurisdiction under a common visa policy for international travel purposes. The area is named after the 1985 Schengen Agreement and the 1990 Schengen Convention, both signed in Schengen, Luxembourg. Of the 27 EU member states, 23 participate in the Schengen Area. Of the four EU members that are not part of the Schengen Area, three—Bulgaria, Cyprus, and Romania—are legally obligated to join the area in the future; Ireland maintains an opt-out, and instead operates its own visa policy. The four European Free Trade Association (EFTA) member states, Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, and Switzerland, are not members of the EU, but have signed agreements in association with the Schengen Agreement. Also, three European microstates—Monaco, San Marino, and the Vatican City—maintain open borders for passenger traffic with their neighbours, and are therefore considered de facto members of the Schengen Area due to the practical impossibility of travelling to or from them without transiting through at least one Schengen member country. Candidate countries Main article: Potential enlargement of the European Union There are nine countries that are recognised as candidates for membership: Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Georgia, Moldova, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Serbia, Turkey, and Ukraine.[143][144][145][146][147] Norway, Switzerland and Iceland have submitted membership applications in the past, but subsequently frozen or withdrawn them.[148] Additionally Kosovo is officially recognised as a potential candidate,[143][149] and submitted a membership application.[150] Former members Article 50 of the Lisbon Treaty provides the basis for a member to leave the EU. Two territories have left the union: Greenland (an autonomous province of Denmark) withdrew in 1985;[151] the United Kingdom formally invoked Article 50 of the Consolidated Treaty on European Union in 2017, and became the only sovereign state to leave when it withdrew from the EU in 2020. Geography Main article: Geography of the European Union Topographic map of Europe (EU highlighted) The EU's member states cover an area of 4,233,262 square kilometres (1,634,472 sq mi),[l] and therefore a large part of the European continent. The EU's highest peak is Mont Blanc in the Graian Alps, 4,810.45 metres (15,782 ft) above sea level.[152] The lowest points in the EU are Lammefjorden, Denmark, and Zuidplaspolder, Netherlands, at 7 m (23 ft) below sea level.[153] The landscape, climate, and economy of the EU are influenced by its coastline, which is 65,993 kilometres (41,006 mi) long. In addition to national territories in Europe, there are 32 special territories of members of the European Economic Area, not all of which are part of the EU. The largest by area is Greenland, which is not part of the EU but whose citizens are EU citizens, while the largest by population are the Canary Islands off Africa, which are part of the EU and the Schengen area. French Guiana in South America is part of the EU and the Eurozone, as is Mayotte, north of Madagascar. Climate Main article: Climate of Europe A Köppen-Geiger climate classification map of Europe (including non-EU member states) The climate of the European Union is of a temperate, continental nature, with a maritime climate prevailing on the western coasts and a mediterranean climate in the south. The climate is strongly conditioned by the Gulf Stream, which warms the western region to levels unattainable at similar latitudes on other continents. Western Europe is oceanic, while eastern Europe is continental and dry. Four seasons occur in western Europe, while southern Europe experiences a wet season and a dry season. Southern Europe is hot and dry during the summer months. The heaviest precipitation occurs downwind of water bodies due to the prevailing westerlies, with higher amounts also seen in the Alps. Environment Main article: Climate change in Europe See also: European Environment Agency Increase of average yearly temperature in selected cities in Europe (1900–2017)[154] In 1957, when the European Economic Community was founded, it had no environmental policy.[155] Over the past 50 years, an increasingly dense network of legislation has been created, extending to all areas of environmental protection, including air pollution, water quality, waste management, nature conservation, and the control of chemicals, industrial hazards, and biotechnology.[155] According to the Institute for European Environmental Policy, environmental law comprises over 500 Directives, Regulations and Decisions, making environmental policy a core area of European politics.[156] European policy-makers originally increased the EU's capacity to act on environmental issues by defining it as a trade problem.[155] Trade barriers and competitive distortions in the Common Market could emerge due to the different environmental standards in each member state.[157] In subsequent years, the environment became a formal policy area, with its own policy actors, principles and procedures. The legal basis for EU environmental policy was established with the introduction of the Single European Act in 1987.[156] Initially, EU environmental policy focused on Europe. More recently, the EU has demonstrated leadership in global environmental governance, e.g. the role of the EU in securing the ratification and coming into force of the Kyoto Protocol despite opposition from the United States. This international dimension is reflected in the EU's Sixth Environmental Action Programme,[158] which recognises that its objectives can only be achieved if key international agreements are actively supported and properly implemented both at EU level and worldwide. The Lisbon Treaty further strengthened the leadership ambitions.[155] EU law has played a significant role in improving habitat and species protection in Europe, as well as contributing to improvements in air and water quality and waste management.[156] Mitigating climate change is one of the top priorities of EU environmental policy. In 2007, member states agreed that, in the future, 20 per cent of the energy used across the EU must be renewable, and carbon dioxide emissions have to be lower in 2020 by at least 20 per cent compared to 1990 levels.[159] In 2017, the EU emitted 9.1 per cent of global greenhouse-gas emissions.[160] The European Union claims that already in 2018, its GHG emissions were 23% lower than in 1990.[161] The EU has adopted an emissions trading system to incorporate carbon emissions into the economy.[162] The European Green Capital is an annual award given to cities that focuses on the environment, energy efficiency, and quality of life in urban areas to create smart city. In the 2019 elections to the European Parliament, the green parties increased their power, possibly because of the rise of post materialist values.[163] Proposals to reach a zero carbon economy in the European Union by 2050 were suggested in 2018 – 2019. Almost all member states supported that goal at an EU summit in June 2019. The Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, and Poland disagreed.[164] In June 2021, the European Union passed a European Climate Law with targets of 55% GHG emissions reduction by 2030 and carbon neutrality by 2050.[165] Also in the same year, the European Union and the United States pledged to cut methane emissions by 30% by 2030. The pledge is considered as a big achievement for climate change mitigation.[166] Economy Main article: Economy of the European Union GDP (PPP) per capita in 2021 (including non-EU countries) The gross domestic product (GDP), a measure of economic activity, of EU member states was US$16.64 trillion in 2022, around 16.6 percent of the world GDP.[167] There is a significant variation in GDP per capita between and within individual EU states. The difference between the richest and poorest regions (281 NUTS-2 regions of the Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics) ranged, in 2017, from 31 per cent (Severozapaden, Bulgaria) of the EU28 average (€30,000) to 253 per cent (Luxembourg), or from €4,600 to €92,600.[168] EU member states own the estimated third largest after the United States (US$140 trillion) and China (US$84 trillion) net wealth in the world, equal to around one sixth (US$76 trillion) of the US$454 trillion global wealth.[169] Of the top 500 largest corporations in the world measured by revenue in 2010, 161 had their headquarters in the EU.[170] In 2016, unemployment in the EU stood at 8.9 per cent[171] while inflation was at 2.2 per cent, and the account balance at −0.9 per cent of GDP. The average annual net earnings in the European Union was around €25,000[172] in 2021. Economic and monetary union Main article: Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union Economic and Monetary Union   Members of the Eurozone   ERM II member   ERM II member with opt-out (Denmark)   Other EU members The Euro is the official currency in 20 member states of the EU. The creation of a European single currency became an official objective of the European Economic Community in 1969. In 1992, having negotiated the structure and procedures of a currency union, the member states signed the Maastricht Treaty and were legally bound to fulfil the agreed-on rules including the convergence criteria if they wanted to join the monetary union. The states wanting to participate had first to join the European Exchange Rate Mechanism. To prevent the joining states from getting into financial trouble or crisis after entering the monetary union, they were obliged in the Maastricht treaty to fulfil important financial obligations and procedures, especially to show budgetary discipline and a high degree of sustainable economic convergence, as well as to avoid excessive government deficits and limit the government debt to a sustainable level, as agreed in the European Fiscal Pact. Capital Markets Union and financial institutions Main articles: Capital Markets Union, European System of Financial Supervision, and European Stability Mechanism See also: European Banking Authority, European Insurance and Occupational Pensions Authority, European Securities and Markets Authority, and Single Resolution Board European Investment Bank. Free movement of capital is intended to permit movement of investments such as property purchases and buying of shares between countries.[173] Until the drive towards economic and monetary union the development of the capital provisions had been slow. Post-Maastricht there has been a rapidly developing corpus of ECJ judgements regarding this initially neglected freedom. The free movement of capital is unique insofar as it is granted equally to non-member states. The European System of Financial Supervision is an institutional architecture of the EU's framework of financial supervision composed by three authorities: the European Banking Authority, the European Insurance and Occupational Pensions Authority and the European Securities and Markets Authority. To complement this framework, there is also a European Systemic Risk Board under the responsibility of the central bank. The aim of this financial control system is to ensure the economic stability of the EU.[174] Eurozone and banking union Main articles: Eurozone and European banking union See also: Eurosystem and Eurogroup Euro banknotes from the Europa series (since 2013) In 1999, the currency union started to materialise through introducing a common accounting (virtual) currency in eleven of the member states. In 2002, it was turned into a fully-fledged conventible currency, when euro notes and coins were issued, while the phaseout of national currencies in the eurozone (consisting by then of 12 member states) was initiated. The eurozone (constituted by the EU member states which have adopted the euro) has since grown to 20 countries.[175][176] The 20 EU member states known collectively as the eurozone have fully implemented the currency union by superseding their national currencies with the euro. The currency union represents 345 million EU citizens.[177] The euro is the second largest reserve currency as well as the second most traded currency in the world after the United States dollar.[178][179][180] The euro, and the monetary policies of those who have adopted it in agreement with the EU, are under the control of the ECB.[181] The ECB is the central bank for the eurozone, and thus controls monetary policy in that area with an agenda to maintain price stability. It is at the centre of the Eurosystem, which comprehends all the Eurozone national central banks.[182] The ECB is also the central institution of the Banking Union established within the eurozone, as the hub of European Banking Supervision. There is also a Single Resolution Mechanism in case of a bank default. Trade As a political entity, the European Union is represented in the World Trade Organization (WTO). Two of the original core objectives of the European Economic Community were the development of a common market, subsequently becoming a single market, and a customs union between its member states. Single market Main article: European single market Further information: Digital Single Market European Single Market   EU member states   Non-EU states which participate The single market involves the free circulation of goods, capital, people, and services within the EU,[177] The free movement of services and of establishment allows self-employed persons to move between member states to provide services on a temporary or permanent basis. While services account for 60 per cent to 70 per cent of GDP, legislation in the area is not as developed as in other areas. This lacuna has been addressed by the Services in the Internal Market Directive 2006 which aims to liberalise the cross border provision of services.[183] According to the treaty the provision of services is a residual freedom that only applies if no other freedom is being exercised. Customs union Main article: European Union Customs Union European Customs Union   EU member states   Non-EU states which participate The customs union involves the application of a common external tariff on all goods entering the market. Once goods have been admitted into the market they cannot be subjected to customs duties, discriminatory taxes or import quotas, as they travel internally. The non-EU member states of Iceland, Norway, Liechtenstein and Switzerland participate in the single market but not in the customs union.[139] Half the trade in the EU is covered by legislation harmonised by the EU.[184] The European Union Association Agreement does something similar for a much larger range of countries, partly as a so-called soft approach ('a carrot instead of a stick') to influence the politics in those countries. The European Union represents all its members at the World Trade Organization (WTO), and acts on behalf of member states in any disputes. When the EU negotiates trade related agreement outside the WTO framework, the subsequent agreement must be approved by each individual EU member state government.[185] External trade Main article: Common Commercial Policy (EU) EU Free trade agreements   European Union   Agreement in force   Agreement (in part) provisionally applied   Agreement signed, but not applied   Agreement initialed, not signed   Agreement being negotiated   Agreement negotiations on hold/suspended The European Union has concluded free trade agreements (FTAs)[186] and other agreements with a trade component with many countries worldwide and is negotiating with many others.[187] The European Union's services trade surplus rose from $16 billion in 2000 to more than $250 billion in 2018.[188] In 2020, in part due to the COVID-19 pandemic, China became the EU's largest trading partner, displacing the United States.[189] The European Union is the largest exporter in the world[190] and in 2008 was the largest importer of goods and services.[191][192] Internal trade between the member states is aided by the removal of barriers to trade such as tariffs and border controls. In the eurozone, trade is helped by not having any currency differences to deal with amongst most members.[185] Competition and consumer protection Main articles: European Union competition law and European consumer law See also: European Union Intellectual Property Office The EU operates a competition policy intended to ensure undistorted competition within the single market.[m] In 2001 the commission for the first time prevented a merger between two companies based in the United States (General Electric and Honeywell) which had already been approved by their national authority.[193] Another high-profile case, against Microsoft, resulted in the commission fining Microsoft over €777 million following nine years of legal action.[194] Energy Main article: Energy policy of the European Union See also: European Union Agency for the Cooperation of Energy Regulators Total energy supply (2019)[195]   Oil (31.7%)   Natural gas (24.7%)   Coal (10.9%)   Nuclear (13.2%)   Biofuels, waste, electricity, heat (19.4%) Energy Community. The total energy supply of the EU was 59 billion GJ in 2019, about 10.2 per cent of the world total. Approximately three fifths of the energy available in the EU came from imports (mostly of fossil fuels). Renewable energy contributed 18.1 per cent of the EU's total energy supply in 2019, and 11.1 per cent of the final energy consumption.[196] The EU has had legislative power in the area of energy policy for most of its existence; this has its roots in the original European Coal and Steel Community. The introduction of a mandatory and comprehensive European energy policy was approved at the meeting of the European Council in October 2005, and the first draft policy was published in January 2007.[197] The EU has five key points in its energy policy: increase competition in the internal market, encourage investment and boost interconnections between electricity grids; diversify energy resources with better systems to respond to a crisis; establish a new treaty framework for energy co-operation with Russia while improving relations with energy-rich states in Central Asia[198] and North Africa; use existing energy supplies more efficiently while increasing renewable energy commercialisation; and finally increase funding for new energy technologies.[197] In 2007, EU countries as a whole imported 82 per cent of their oil, 57 per cent of their natural gas[199] and 97.48 per cent of their uranium[200] demands. The three largest suppliers of natural gas to the European Union are Russia, Norway and Algeria, that amounted for about three quarters of the imports in 2019.[201] There is a strong dependence on Russian energy that the EU has been attempting to reduce.[202] However, in May 2022, it was reported that the European Union is preparing another sanction against Russia over its invasion of Ukraine. It is expected to target Russian oil, Russian and Belarusian banks, as well as individuals and companies. According to an article by Reuters, two diplomats stated that the European Union may impose a ban on imports of Russian oil by the end of 2022.[203] In May 2022, the EU Commission published the 'RePowerEU' initiative, a €300 billion plan outlining the path towards the end of EU dependence on Russian fossil fuels by 2030 and the acceleration on the clean energy transition.[204] Transport Main article: Transport in the European Union Further information: Trans-European Transport Network See also: European Union Aviation Safety Agency, European Maritime Safety Agency, and European Union Agency for Railways Map of the Trans-European Transport Network The European Union manages cross-border road, railway, airport and water infrastructure through the Trans-European Transport Network (TEN-T), created in 1990,[205] and the Trans-European Combined Transport network. TEN-T comprises two network layers: the Core Network, which is to be completed by 2030; and the Comprehensive Network, which is to be completed by 2050. The network is currently made up of 9 core corridors: the Baltic–Adriatic Corridor, the North Sea–Baltic Corridor, the Mediterranean Corridor, the Orient/East–Med Corridor, the Scandinavian–Mediterranean Corridor, the Rhine–Alpine Corridor, the Atlantic Corridor, the North Sea–Mediterranean Corridor, and the Rhine–Danube Corridor. Road transportation was organized under the TEN-T by the Trans-European road network. Bundesautobahn 7 is the longest national motorway in the EU at 963 km (598 mi). Satellite photo of the Port of Rotterdam Maritime transportation is organized under the TEN-T by the Trans-European Inland Waterway network, and the Trans-European Seaport network. European seaports are categorized as international, community, or regional. The Port of Rotterdam is the busiest in the EU, and the world's largest seaport outside of East Asia, located in and near the city of Rotterdam, in the province of South Holland in the Netherlands.[206][207] The European Maritime Safety Agency (EMSA), founded in 2002 in Lisbon, Portugal, is charged with reducing the risk of maritime accidents, marine pollution from ships and the loss of human lives at sea by helping to enforce the pertinent EU legislation. Air transportation is organized under the TEN-T by the Trans-European Airport network. European airports are categorized as international, community, or regional. The Charles de Gaulle Airport is the busiest in the EU, located in and near the city of Paris, in France.[208] The European Common Aviation Area (ECAA) is a single market in aviation. ECAA agreements were signed on 5 May 2006 in Salzburg, Austria between the EU and some third countries. The ECAA liberalises the air transport industry by allowing any company from any ECAA member state to fly between any ECAA member states airports, thereby allowing a "foreign" airline to provide domestic flights. The Single European Sky (SES) is an initiative that seeks to reform the European air traffic management system through a series of actions carried out in four different levels (institutional, operational, technological and control and supervision) with the aim of satisfying the needs of the European airspace in terms of capacity, safety, efficiency and environmental impact. Civil aviation safety is under the responsibility of the European Union Aviation Safety Agency (EASA). It carries out certification, regulation and standardisation and also performs investigation and monitoring. The idea of a European-level aviation safety authority goes back to 1996, but the agency was only legally established in 2002, and began operating in 2003. Rail transportation is organized under the TEN-T by the Trans-European Rail network, made up of the high-speed rail network and the conventional rail network. The Gare du Nord railway station is the busiest in the EU, located in and near the city of Paris, in France.[209][210] Rail transport in Europe is being synchronised with the European Rail Traffic Management System (ERTMS) with the goal of greatly enhancing safety, increase efficiency of train transports and enhance cross-border interoperability. This is done by replacing former national signalling equipment and operational procedures with a single new Europe-wide standard for train control and command systems. This system is conducted by the European Union Agency for Railways (ERA). Transport documents used in the European Union European driving licence (Croatian version pictured) European driving licence (Croatian version pictured)   European vehicle registration plate (Slovak version pictured) European vehicle registration plate (Slovak version pictured)   European disabled parking permit (Polish version pictured) European disabled parking permit (Polish version pictured) Telecommunications and space Main articles: Telecommunications in the European Union and European Union Space Programme Further information: European Union roaming regulations See also: Agency for Support for BEREC, European Union Agency for the Space Programme, and European Space Agency Mobile communication roaming charges are abolished throughout the EU, Iceland, Liechtenstein and Norway. Galileo control centre in Oberpfaffenhofen The European Union Agency for the Space Programme (EUSPA), headquartered in Prague, Czech Republic, was established in 2021 to manage the European Union Space Programme in order to implement the pre-existing European Space Policy, established on 22 May 2007 between the EU and the European Space Agency (ESA), known collectively as the European Space Council. This was the first common political framework for space activities established by the EU. Each member state has pursued to some extent their own national space policy, though often co-ordinating through the ESA. Günter Verheugen, the European Commissioner for Enterprise and Industry, has stated that even though the EU is "a world leader in the technology, it is being put on the defensive by the United States and Russia and that it only has about a 10-year technological advantage on China and India, which are racing to catch up." Galileo is a global navigation satellite system (GNSS) that went live in 2016, created by the EU through the ESA, operated by the EUSPA, with two ground operations centres in Fucino, Italy, and Oberpfaffenhofen, Germany. The €10 billion project is named after the Italian astronomer Galileo Galilei. One of the aims of Galileo is to provide an independent high-precision positioning system so European political and military authorities do not have to rely on the US GPS, or the Russian GLONASS systems, which could be disabled or degraded by their operators at any time. The European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service (EGNOS) is a satellite-based augmentation system (SBAS) developed by the ESA and EUROCONTROL. Currently, it supplements the GPS by reporting on the reliability and accuracy of their positioning data and sending out corrections. The system will supplement Galileo in a future version. The Copernicus Programme is the EU's Earth observation programme coordinated and managed by EUSPA in partnership with ESA. It aims at achieving a global, continuous, autonomous, high quality, wide range Earth observation capacity, providing accurate, timely and easily accessible information to, among other things, improve the management of the environment, understand and mitigate the effects of climate change, and ensure civil security. Agriculture and fisheries Main articles: Common Agricultural Policy and Common Fisheries Policy See also: European Fisheries Control Agency and European Food Safety Authority The EU's exclusive economic zone (EEZ). At 25 million square kilometres, it is the largest in the world.[211] The Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) is the agricultural policy of the European Union. It implements a system of agricultural subsidies and other programmes. It was introduced in 1962 and has since then undergone several changes to reduce the EEC budget cost (from 73% in 1985 to 37% in 2017) and consider rural development in its aims. It has, however, been criticised on the grounds of its cost and its environmental and humanitarian effects. Likewise, the Common Fisheries Policy (CFP) is the fisheries policy of the European Union. It sets quotas for which member states are allowed to catch each type of fish, as well as encouraging the fishing industry by various market interventions and fishing subsidies. It was introduced in 2009 with the Treaty of Lisbon, which formally enshrined fisheries conservation policy as one of the handful of "exclusive competences" reserved for the European Union. Regional development Main article: Regional policy of the European Union See also: European Committee of the Regions and European Investment Bank Classification of regions from 2021 to 2027   Less developed regions   Transition regions   More developed regions The five European Structural and Investment Funds are supporting the development of the EU regions, primarily the underdeveloped ones, located mostly in the states of central and southern Europe.[212][213] Another fund (the Instrument for Pre-Accession Assistance) provides support for candidate members to transform their country to conform to the EU's standard. Demographic transition to a society of ageing population, low fertility-rates and depopulation of non-metropolitan regions is tackled within this policies. Labour See also: European Agency for Safety and Health at Work, European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training, European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions, European Labour Authority, European Training Foundation, and EURES The free movement of persons means that EU citizens can move freely between member states to live, work, study or retire in another country. This required the lowering of administrative formalities and recognition of professional qualifications of other states.[214] The EU seasonally adjusted unemployment rate was 6.7 per cent in September 2018.[215] The euro area unemployment rate was 8.1 per cent.[215] Among the member states, the lowest unemployment rates were recorded in the Czech Republic (2.3 per cent), Germany and Poland (both 3.4 per cent), and the highest in Spain (14.9 per cent) and Greece (19.0 in July 2018). The European Union has long sought to mitigate the effects of free markets by protecting workers' rights and preventing social and environmental dumping.[citation needed] To this end it has adopted laws establishing minimum employment and environmental standards. These included the Working Time Directive and the Environmental Impact Assessment Directive. The European Directive about Minimum Wage, which looks to lift minimum wages and strengthen collective bargaining was approved by the European Parliament in September 2022.[216] Social rights and equality Main articles: European social model, European Social Fund Plus, Welfare State, European Social Charter, European Voluntary Service, European labour law, List of countries by guaranteed minimum income, and European Pillar of Social Rights The EU has also sought to coordinate the social security and health systems of member states to facilitate individuals exercising free movement rights and to ensure they maintain their ability to access social security and health services in other member states. Since 2019 there has been a European commissioner for equality and the European Institute for Gender Equality has existed since 2007. A Directive on countering gender-based violence has been proposed.[217][218] In September 2022, a European Care strategy was approved in order to provide "quality, affordable and accessible care services".[219] The European Social Charter is the main body that recognises the social rights of European citizens. In 2020, the first ever European Union Strategy on LGBTIQ equality was approved under Helena Dalli mandate.[220] In December 2021, the commission announced the intention of codifying a union-wide law against LGBT hate crimes.[221] Freedom, security and justice Main article: Area of freedom, security and justice Further information: Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union See also: eu-LISA, Eurojust, European Institute for Gender Equality, European Union Agency for Asylum, European Union Agency for Cybersecurity, European Union Agency for Law Enforcement Training, Europol, Frontex, and Fundamental Rights Agency The Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union contains a wide range of political, social, and economic rights for EU citizens. Since the creation of the European Union in 1993, it has developed its competencies in the area of justice and home affairs; initially at an intergovernmental level and later by supranationalism. Accordingly, the union has legislated in areas such as extradition,[222] family law,[223] asylum law,[224] and criminal justice.[225] The EU has also established agencies to co-ordinate police, prosecution and civil litigations across the member states: Europol for police co-operation, CEPOL for training of police forces[226] and the Eurojust for co-operation between prosecutors and courts.[227] It also operates the EUCARIS database of vehicles and drivers, the Eurodac, the European Criminal Records Information System, the European Cybercrime Centre, FADO, PRADO and others. Prohibitions against discrimination have a long standing in the treaties. In more recent years, these have been supplemented by powers to legislate against discrimination based on race, religion, disability, age, and sexual orientation.[n] The treaties declare that the European Union itself is "founded on the values of respect for human dignity, freedom, democracy, equality, the rule of law and respect for human rights, including the rights of persons belonging to minorities ... in a society in which pluralism, non-discrimination, tolerance, justice, solidarity and equality between women and men prevail."[228] By virtue of these powers, the EU has enacted legislation on sexism in the work-place, age discrimination, and racial discrimination.[o] In 2009, the Lisbon Treaty gave legal effect to the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union. The charter is a codified catalogue of fundamental rights against which the EU's legal acts can be judged. It consolidates many rights which were previously recognised by the Court of Justice and derived from the "constitutional traditions common to the member states".[229] The Court of Justice has long recognised fundamental rights and has, on occasion, invalidated EU legislation based on its failure to adhere to those fundamental rights.[230] Signing the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) is a condition for EU membership.[p] Previously, the EU itself could not accede to the convention as it is neither a state[q] nor had the competence to accede.[r] The Lisbon Treaty and Protocol 14 to the ECHR have changed this: the former binds the EU to accede to the convention while the latter formally permits it. The EU is independent from the Council of Europe, although they share purpose and ideas, especially on the rule of law, human rights and democracy. Furthermore, the European Convention on Human Rights and European Social Charter, as well as the source of law for the Charter of Fundamental Rights are created by the Council of Europe. The EU has also promoted human rights issues in the wider world. The EU opposes the death penalty and has proposed its worldwide abolition. Abolition of the death penalty is a condition for EU membership.[231] On 19 October 2020, the European Union revealed new plans to create a legal structure to act against human rights violations worldwide. The new plan was expected to provide the European Union with greater flexibility to target and sanction those responsible for serious human rights violations and abuses around the world.[232] Examples of identity, travel and health documents used in the EU An EEA national identity card (German version pictured) An EEA national identity card (German version pictured)   A Schengen visa (German version) A Schengen visa (German version)   A passport, displaying the name of the member state, the national arms and the words "European Union" given in their official language(s) (Irish version pictured) A passport, displaying the name of the member state, the national arms and the words "European Union" given in their official language(s) (Irish version pictured)   A European Health Insurance Card (Slovenian version pictured) A European Health Insurance Card (Slovenian version pictured) Demographics Main article: Demographics of the European Union See also: European Union citizenship Map showing the population density by NUTS3 region, 2017, including non-EU countries The population of the EU in 2021 was about 447 million people, corresponding to 5.8 per cent of the world population.[142][233] The population density across the EU was 106 inhabitants per square kilometre, which is more than the world average.[234] It is highest in areas in central and western Europe, sometimes referred to as the "blue banana", while Sweden and Finland in the north are much more sparsely populated. The total population of the EU has been slightly decreasing for several years, contracting by 0.04 per cent in 2021.[235] This is due to a low birth rate of about 1.5 children per woman, less than the world average of 2.3.[236] In total, 4.1 million babies were born in the EU in 2021.[237] Immigration to Europe partially compensates for the natural population decrease. 5.3 per cent of the people residing in the EU are not EU citizens (a person who has the citizenship of an EU member state is automatically also an EU citizen).[234] There were 31 non-EU citizenships that each accounted for at least 1 per cent of non-EU citizens living in the EU, of which the largest were Moroccan, Turkish, Syrian and Chinese.[238] Around 1.9 million people immigrated to one of the EU member states from a non-EU country during 2020, and a total of 956 000 people emigrated from a member state to go to a non-EU country during the same year.[239] Urbanisation See also: List of cities in the European Union by population within city limits and List of urban areas in the European Union The Paris metropolitan area is the most populous urban area in the EU. More than two thirds (68.2%) of EU inhabitants lived in urban areas in 2020, which is slightly less than the world average.[234] Cities are largely spread out across the EU with a large grouping in and around the Benelux.[240] The EU contains about 40 urban areas with populations of over 1 million. With a population of over 13 million,[241] Paris is the largest metropolitan area and the only megacity in the EU.[242] Paris is followed by Madrid, Barcelona, Berlin, the Ruhr, Milan, and Rome, all with a metropolitan population of over 4 million. The EU also has numerous polycentric urbanised regions like Rhine-Ruhr (Cologne, Dortmund, Düsseldorf et al.), Randstad (Amsterdam, Rotterdam, The Hague, Utrecht et al.), Frankfurt Rhine-Main (Frankfurt, Wiesbaden, Mainz et al.), the Flemish Diamond (Antwerp, Brussels, Leuven, Ghent et al.) and Upper Silesian area (Katowice, Ostrava et al.).[242]   Largest population centres of the European Union metropolitan regions, Eurostat 2023[243] Rank City name State Pop. Rank City name State Pop. 1 Paris France 12,388,388 11 Brussels Belgium 3,395,581 2 Madrid Spain 6,871,903 12 Warsaw Poland 3,269,510 3 Barcelona Spain 5,797,356 13 Marseille France 3,183,476 4 Berlin Germany 5,481,613 14 Budapest Hungary 3,031,887 5 Ruhr Germany 5,147,820 15 Munich Germany 2,980,338 6 Milan Italy 4,329,748 16 Naples Italy 2,981,735 7 Rome Italy 4,227,059 17 Vienna Austria 2,971,753 8 Athens Greece 3,626,216 18 Lisbon Portugal 2,899,670 9 Hamburg Germany 3,423,121 19 Stuttgart Germany 2,816,924 10 Amsterdam Netherlands 3,397,323 20 Prague Czech Republic 2,796,717 Languages Main article: Languages of the European Union See also: Translation Centre for the Bodies of the European Union Official languages by percentage of speakers, 2012[s][failed verification]  Language Native speakers[t] Total[u] German 18% 32% French 13% 26% Italian 12% 16% Spanish 8% 15% Polish 8% 9% Romanian 5% 5% Dutch 4% 5% Greek 3% 4% Hungarian 3% 3% Portuguese 2% 3% Czech 2% 3% Swedish 2% 3% Bulgarian 2% 2% English 1% 51% Slovak 1% 2% Danish 1% 1% Finnish 1% 1% Lithuanian 1% 1% Croatian 1% 1% Slovene <1% <1% Estonian <1% <1% Irish <1% <1% Latvian <1% <1% Maltese <1% <1% The EU has 24 official languages: Bulgarian, Croatian, Czech, Danish, Dutch, English, Estonian, Finnish, French, German, Greek, Hungarian, Italian, Irish, Latvian, Lithuanian, Maltese, Polish, Portuguese, Romanian, Slovak, Slovene, Spanish, and Swedish. Important documents, such as legislation, are translated into every official language and the European Parliament provides translation for documents and plenary sessions.[248][249] Most EU institutions use only a handful of working languages: the European Commission conducts its internal business in three procedural languages: English, French, and German;[250] the Court of Justice uses French as the working language,[251] and the European Central Bank conducts its business primarily in English.[252][253] Even though language policy is the responsibility of member states, EU institutions promote multilingualism among its citizens.[f][254] The most widely spoken language in the EU is English; the language is spoken by 44 per cent of the population (2016 data) and studied by 95 per cent of school students,[255] although following the withdrawal of the United Kingdom less than 1 per cent of the population speak it natively. German and French are spoken by 36 per cent and 30 per cent of the population.[256] More than half (56 per cent) of EU citizens are able to engage in a conversation in a language other than their mother tongue.[257] Luxembourgish (in Luxembourg) and Turkish (in Cyprus) are the only two national languages that are not official languages of the EU. Catalan, Galician and Basque are not recognised official languages of the EU but have official status in Spain. Therefore, official translations of the treaties are made into them and citizens have the right to correspond with the institutions in these languages.[258][259] There are about 150 regional and minority languages in the EU, spoken by up to 50 million people.[260] The European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages ratified by most EU states provides general guidelines that states can follow to protect their linguistic heritage. The European Day of Languages is held annually on 26 September and is aimed at encouraging language learning across Europe.[261] Religion Main article: Religion in the European Union Religious affiliation in the EU (2015)[2]  Affiliation Per cent of EU population Christian 71.6   Catholic 45.3   Protestant 11.1   Eastern Orthodox 9.6   Other Christian 5.6   Muslim 1.8   Other faiths 2.6   Irreligious 24.0   Non-believer/Agnostic 13.6   Atheist 10.4   The EU has no formal connection to any religion. Article 17 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union[262] recognises the "status under national law of churches and religious associations" as well as that of "philosophical and non-confessional organisations".[263] The preamble to the Treaty on European Union mentions the "cultural, religious and humanist inheritance of Europe".[263][264] Discussion over the draft texts of the European Constitution and later the Treaty of Lisbon included proposals to mention Christianity or a god, or both, in the preamble of the text, but the idea faced opposition and was dropped.[265] Christians in the EU include Catholics of both Roman and Eastern Rite, numerous Protestant denominations with Lutherans, Anglicans, and Reformed forming the majority of Protestant affiliations, and the Eastern Orthodox Church. In 2009, the EU had an estimated Muslim population of 13 million,[266] and an estimated Jewish population of over a million.[267] The other world religions of Buddhism, Hinduism, and Sikhism are also represented in the EU population. Eurostat's Eurobarometer opinion polls showed in 2005 that 52 per cent of EU citizens believed in a god, 27 per cent in "some sort of spirit or life force", and 18 per cent had no form of belief.[268] Many countries have experienced falling church attendance and membership in recent years.[269] The countries where the fewest people reported a religious belief were Estonia (16 per cent) and the Czech Republic (19 per cent).[268] The most religious countries were Malta (95 per cent, predominantly Catholic) as well as Cyprus and Romania (both predominantly Orthodox) each with about 90 per cent of citizens professing a belief in God. Across the EU, belief was higher among women, older people, those with religious upbringing, those who left school at 15 or 16, and those "positioning themselves on the right of the political scale".[268] Education and research Main articles: Educational policies and initiatives of the European Union and Framework Programmes for Research and Technological Development See also: European Institute of Innovation and Technology Erasmus of Rotterdam, the Renaissance humanist after whom the Erasmus Programme is named Basic education is an area where the EU's role is limited to supporting national governments. In higher education, the policy was developed in the 1980s in programmes supporting exchanges and mobility. The most visible of these has been the Erasmus Programme, a university exchange programme which began in 1987. In its first 20 years, it supported international exchange opportunities for well over 1.5 million university and college students and became a symbol of European student life.[270] There are similar programmes for school pupils and teachers, for trainees in vocational education and training, and for adult learners in the Lifelong Learning Programme 2007–2013. These programmes are designed to encourage a wider knowledge of other countries and to spread good practices in the education and training fields across the EU.[271][272] Through its support of the Bologna Process, the EU is supporting comparable standards and compatible degrees across Europe. Scientific development is facilitated through the EU's Framework Programmes, the first of which started in 1984. The aims of EU policy in this area are to co-ordinate and stimulate research. The independent European Research Council allocates EU funds to European or national research projects.[273] EU research and technological framework programmes deal in a number of areas, for example energy where the aim is to develop a diverse mix of renewable energy to help the environment and to reduce dependence on imported fuels.[274] Health Main article: Healthcare in Europe See also: European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control, European Chemicals Agency, European Medicines Agency, and European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction Article 35 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union affirms that "A high level of human health protection shall be ensured in the definition and implementation of all Union policies and activities". The European Commission's Directorate-General for Health and Consumers seeks to align national laws on the protection of people's health, on the consumers' rights, on the safety of food and other products.[275][276][277] All EU and many other European countries offer their citizens a free European Health Insurance Card which, on a reciprocal basis, provides insurance for emergency medical treatment insurance when visiting other participating European countries.[278] A directive on cross-border healthcare aims at promoting co-operation on health care between member states and facilitating access to safe and high-quality cross-border healthcare for European patients.[279][280][281] The life expectancy in the EU was 80.1 year at birth in 2021, among the highest in the world and around nine years higher than the world average.[282] In general, life expectancy is lower in Eastern Europe than in Western Europe.[283] In 2018, the EU region with the highest life expectancy was Madrid, Spain at 85.2 years, followed by the Spanish regions of La Rioja and Castilla y León both at 84.3 years, Trentino in Italy at 84.3 years and Île-de-France in France at 84.2 years.[284] Culture Main article: Cultural policies of the European Union Cultural co-operation between member states has been an interest of the European Union since its inclusion as a community competency in the Maastricht Treaty.[285] Actions taken in the cultural area by the EU include the Culture 2000 seven-year programme,[285] the European Cultural Month event,[286] and orchestras such as the European Union Youth Orchestra.[287] The European Capital of Culture programme selects one or more cities in every year to assist the cultural development of that city.[288] Sport Main article: Sport policies of the European Union Sport is mainly the responsibility of the member states or other international organisations, rather than of the EU. There are some EU policies that have affected sport, such as the free movement of workers, which was at the core of the Bosman ruling that prohibited national football leagues from imposing quotas on foreign players with EU member state citizenship.[289] The Treaty of Lisbon requires any application of economic rules to take into account the specific nature of sport and its structures based on voluntary activity.[290] This followed lobbying by governing organisations such as the International Olympic Committee and FIFA, due to objections over the application of free market principles to sport, which led to an increasing gap between rich and poor clubs.[291] The EU does fund a programme for Israeli, Jordanian, Irish, and British football coaches, as part of the Football 4 Peace project.[292] Symbols Further information: European Heritage Label Europa and the Bull on a Greek vase, c. 480 BC. Tarquinia National Museum, Italy The flag of Europe consists of a circle of 12 golden stars on a blue background. Originally designed in 1955 for the Council of Europe, the flag was adopted by the European Communities, the predecessors of the present European Union, in 1986. The Council of Europe gave the flag a symbolic description in the following terms,[293] though the official symbolic description adopted by the EU omits the reference to the "Western world":[294] Against the blue sky of the Western world, the stars symbolise the peoples of Europe in a form of a circle, the sign of union. The number of stars is invariably twelve, the figure twelve being the symbol of perfection and entirety. — Council of Europe. Paris, 7–9 December 1955. United in Diversity was adopted as the motto of the union in 2000, having been selected from proposals submitted by school pupils.[295] Since 1985, the flag day of the union has been Europe Day, on 9 May (the date of the 1950 Schuman declaration). The anthem of the EU is an instrumental version of the prelude to the Ode to Joy, the 4th movement of Ludwig van Beethoven's ninth symphony. The anthem was adopted by European Community leaders in 1985 and has since been played on official occasions.[296] Besides naming the continent, the Greek mythological figure of Europa has frequently been employed as a personification of Europe. Known from the myth in which Zeus seduces her in the guise of a white bull, Europa has also been referred to in relation to the present union. Statues of Europa and the bull decorate several of the EU's institutions and a portrait of her is seen on the 2013 series of euro banknotes. The bull is, for its part, depicted on all residence permit cards.[297] Charles the Great, also known as Charlemagne (Latin: Carolus Magnus) and later recognised as Pater Europae ("Father of Europe"),[298][299][300] has a symbolic relevance to Europe. The commission has named one of its central buildings in Brussels after Charlemagne and the city of Aachen has since 1949 awarded the Charlemagne Prize to champions of European unification.[301] Since 2008, the organisers of this prize, in conjunction with the European Parliament, have awarded the Charlemagne Youth Prize in recognition of similar efforts led by young people.[302] Media Main articles: Media freedom in the European Union and European Broadcasting Union Euronews headquarters in Lyon, France Media freedom is a fundamental right that applies to all member states of the European Union and its citizens, as defined in the EU Charter of Fundamental Rights as well as the European Convention on Human Rights.[303]: 1  Within the EU enlargement process, guaranteeing media freedom is named a "key indicator of a country's readiness to become part of the EU".[304] The majority of media in the European Union are national-orientated, although some EU-wide media focusing on European affairs have emerged since the early 1990s, such as Euronews, Eurosport, EUobserver, EURACTIV or Politico Europe.[305][306] Arte is a public Franco-German TV network that promotes programming in the areas of culture and the arts. 80 per cent of its programming are provided in equal proportion by the two member companies, while the remainder is being provided by the European Economic Interest Grouping ARTE GEIE and the channel's European partners.[307] The MEDIA Programme of the European Union has supported the European popular film and audiovisual industries since 1991. It provides support for the development, promotion and distribution of European works within Europe and beyond.[308] Influence The European emblem emblazoned on the Eiffel Tower The European Union has had a significant positive economic effect on most member states.[309] According to a 2019 study of the member states who joined from 1973 to 2004, "without European integration, per capita incomes would have been, on average, approximately 10% lower in the first ten years after joining the EU".[309] Greece was the exception reported by the study, which analysed up to 2008, "to avoid confounding effects from the global financial crisis".[309] A 2021 study in the Journal of Political Economy found that the 2004 enlargement had aggregate beneficial economic effects on all groups in both the old and new member states. The largest winners were the new member states, in particular unskilled labour in the new member states.[310] The European Union is frequently cited as having made a major contribution to peace in Europe, in particular by pacifying border disputes,[311][312] and to the spread of democracy, especially by encouraging democratic reforms in aspiring Eastern European member states after the collapse of the USSR.[313][314] Scholar Thomas Risse wrote in 2009, "there is a consensus in the literature on Eastern Europe that the EU membership perspective had a huge anchoring effects for the new democracies."[314] However, R. Daniel Kelemen argues that the EU has proved beneficial to leaders who are overseeing democratic backsliding, as the EU is reluctant to intervene in domestic politics, gives authoritarian governments funds which they can use to strengthen their regimes, and because freedom of movement within the EU allows dissenting citizens to leave their backsliding countries. At the same time, the union might provide through Article 7 of the Treaty on European Union an external constraint that prevents electoral autocracies, currently Hungary,[315] from progressing into closed autocracies.[316] vte European Union articles History Timeline Ideas of European unity before 1948Founders1948–19571958–19721973–19931993–2004Since 2004 Predecessors Military WUnion (1948–1954)Western European Union (1954–2011) European Communities (1967–2009) International Authority for the Ruhr (1949–1951)European Coal and Steel Community (1951–2002) European Economic Community (1958–1993)European Community (1993–2009) European Atomic Energy Community (est. 1958) Central Bank European Monetary Cooperation Fund (1973–1994)European Monetary Institute (1994–1998) Financial Stability European Financial Stability Facility (2010–2012)European Financial Stability Mechanism (2010–2012) Past enlargements 1973198119861995200420072013 Geography GeographyDemographicsExternal borderEnvironmental 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control databases Edit this at Wikidata International ISNIVIAF National NorwaySpainFranceBnF dataCataloniaGermanyIsraelUnited StatesSwedenLatviaJapanCzech RepublicAustraliaKoreaCroatiaPolandPortugal Academics CiNii People Trove Other Encyclopedia of Modern UkraineHistorical Dictionary of SwitzerlandIdRef Categories: European UnionEuropean Economic Area1993 establishments in EuropeConfederationsG20 membersInternational organizations based in EuropeInternational political organizationsOrganisations based in BrusselsOrganizations awarded Nobel Peace PrizesOrganizations established in 1993Political organizations based in EuropePolitical systemsSupranational unionsTrade blocsUnited Nations General Assembly observers Britannia Article Talk Read Edit View history Tools From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia For the province of the Roman Empire, see Roman Britain. For other uses, see Britannia (disambiguation). A photograph of a statue of Britannia on a stone plinth outdoors The Armada Memorial in Plymouth depicting Britannia Britannia (/brɪˈtæniə/) is the national personification of Britain as a helmeted female warrior holding a trident and shield.[1] An image first used by the Romans in classical antiquity, the Latin Britannia was the name variously applied to the British Isles, Great Britain, and the Roman province of Britain during the Roman Empire.[2][3][4] Typically depicted reclining or seated with spear and shield since appearing thus on Roman coins of the 2nd century AD, the classical national allegory was revived in the early modern period.[3] On coins of the pound sterling issued by Charles II of England, Scotland, and Ireland, Britannia appears with her shield bearing the Union Flag.[3] To symbolise the Royal Navy's victories, Britannia's spear became the characteristic trident in 1797, and a helmet was added to the coinage in 1825.[3] By the 1st century BC, Britannia replaced Albion as the prevalent Latin name for the island of Great Britain.[5][6] After the Roman conquest in 43 AD, Britannia came to refer to the Roman province that encompassed the southern two-thirds of the island (see Roman Britain). The remaining third of the island, known to the Romans as Caledonia, lay north of the River Forth in modern Scotland. It was intermittently but not permanently occupied by the Roman army.[7] The name is a Latinisation of the native Brittonic word for Great Britain, Pretanī, which also produced the Greek form Prettanike or Brettaniai. In the 2nd century, Roman Britannia came to be personified as a goddess, armed with a spear and shield and wearing a Corinthian helmet. When Roman Britain was divided into four provinces in 197 AD, two were called Britannia Superior (lit. 'Upper Britain') in the south and Britannia Inferior (lit. 'Lower Britain') to the north. The name Britannia long survived the end of Roman rule in Britain in the 5th century and yielded the name for the island in most European and various other languages, including the English Britain and the modern Welsh Prydain. In the 9th century the associated terms Bretwalda and Brytenwealda were applied to some Anglo-Saxon kings to assert a wider hegemony in Britain and hyperbolic inscriptions on coins and titles in charters often included the equivalent title rex Britanniae. However when England was unified the title used was rex Angulsaxonum ('king of the Anglo-Saxons'). After centuries of declining use, the Latin form was revived during the English Renaissance as a rhetorical evocation of a British national identity. Especially following the Acts of Union in 1707, which joined the Kingdoms of England and Scotland, the personification of the martial Britannia was used as an emblem of British maritime power and unity, most notably in the patriotic song "Rule, Britannia!". A British cultural icon, she was featured on all modern British coinage series until the redesign in 2008, and still appears annually on the gold and silver "Britannia" bullion coin series. In 2015 a new definitive £2 coin was issued, with a new image of Britannia. She is also depicted in the Brit Awards statuette, the British Phonographic Industry's annual music awards. Greek and Roman periods Main articles: Roman Britain and Britain (name) Reverse of sestertius of Antoninus Pius (r. 138–161), marked: britannia (and s·c·) showing Britannia with shield and spear in the characteristic reclining pose Reverse of a denarius of Carausius (r. 286–293), ruler of the Roman Britannic Empire, showing Britannia (left) welcoming the emperor with the words veni expectate (lit. 'Come, O expected one')[8] The first writer to use a form of the name was the Greek explorer and geographer Pytheas in the 4th century BC. Pytheas referred to Prettanike or Brettaniai, a group of islands off the coast of North-Western Europe. In the 1st century BC, Diodorus Siculus referred to Pretannia,[9] a rendering of the indigenous name for the Pretani people whom the Greeks believed to inhabit the British Isles.[10][11] Following the Greek usage, the Romans referred to the Insulae Britannicae in the plural, consisting of Albion (Great Britain), Hibernia (Ireland), Thule (possibly Iceland or Orkney) and many smaller islands. Over time, Albion specifically came to be known as Britannia, and the name for the group was subsequently dropped.[9] Although the creation and unification of the province of Britannia is commonly attributed to the emperor Claudius in 43 AD, Julius Caesar had already established Roman authority over the Southern and Eastern Britain dynasties during his two expeditions to the island in 55 and 54 BC.[12] Just as Caesar himself had been an obside, hostage,[13] in Bithynia as a youth, he also had taken the King's sons back to Rome as obsides and to be educated. The Roman conquest of the island began in AD 43, leading to the establishment of the Roman province known in Latin as Britannia. The Romans never successfully conquered the whole island, building Hadrian's Wall as a boundary with Caledonia, which covered roughly the territory of modern Scotland, although the whole of the boundary marked by Hadrian's Wall lies within modern-day Northern England. A southern part of what is now Scotland was occupied by the Romans for about 20 years in the mid-2nd century AD, keeping in place the Picts to the north of the Antonine Wall. People living in the Roman province of Britannia were called Britanni, or Britons. Ireland, inhabited by the Scoti, was never invaded and was called Hibernia. Thule, an island "six days' sail north of Britain, and [...] near the frozen sea", possibly Iceland, was also never invaded by the Romans.[citation needed] Claudius paid a visit while Britain was being conquered and was honoured with the agnomen Britannicus as if he were the conqueror; a frieze discovered at Aphrodisias in 1980 shows a bare breasted and helmeted female warrior labelled BRITANNIA, writhing in agony under the heel of the emperor.[14] She appeared on coins issued under Hadrian, as a more regal-looking female figure.[15] Britannia was soon personified as a goddess, looking fairly similar to the goddess Athena-Minerva - both are seated and replete with helmet, spear (trident) and shield. Early portraits of the goddess depict Britannia as a beautiful young woman, wearing a Corinthian helmet, and wrapped in a white garment with her right breast exposed. She is usually shown seated on a rock, holding a trident, and with a spiked shield propped beside her. Sometimes she holds a standard and leans on the shield. On another range of coinage, she is seated on a globe above waves: Britain at the edge of the (known) world. Similar coin types were also issued under Antoninus Pius. British revival Britannia mourning the death of Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson at the victorious Battle of Trafalgar in a cartoon by James Gillray Medieval use After the Roman withdrawal, the term "Britannia" remained in use in Britain and abroad. Latin was ubiquitous amongst native Brythonic writers and the term continued in the Welsh tradition that developed from it. Writing with variations on the term Britannia (or Prydein in the native language) appeared in many Welsh works such as the Historia Britonum, Armes Prydein and the 12th-century Historia Regum Britanniae, which gained unprecedented popularity throughout western Europe during the High Middle Ages. Following the migration of Brythonic Celts, the term Britannia also came to refer to the Armorican peninsula (at least from the 6th century).[16] The modern English, French, Breton and Gallo names for the area, all derive from a literal use of Britannia meaning "land of the Britons". The two "Britannias" gave rise to the term Grande Bretagne (Great Britain) to distinguish the island of Britain from the continental peninsula. Following the Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain, the term "Briton" only referred to the native British, Celtic-speaking inhabitants of the province; this remained the case until the modern era. The use of the term as an inhabitant of the island of Great Britain or the UK is relatively recent.[17] Renaissance and British Empire Reception of the American Loyalists by Great Britain in the Year 1783 engraved by Henry Moses after Benjamin West. Loyalists seek aid from Britannia after their expulsion from the United States. Britannia between Scylla and Charybdis by James Gillray (1793). William Pitt the Younger, Chancellor of the Exchequer, steers the ship Constitution carrying Britannia. It was during the reign of Elizabeth I that "Britannia" again came to be used as a personification of Britain. In his 1576 "General and rare memorials pertayning to the Perfect Arte of Navigation", John Dee used a frontispiece figure of Britannia kneeling by the shore beseeching Elizabeth I, to protect her empire by strengthening her navy.[8] With the death of Elizabeth in 1603 came the succession of her Scottish cousin, James VI, King of Scots, to the English throne. He became James I of England, and so brought under his personal rule the Kingdoms of England (and the dominion of Wales), Ireland and Scotland. On 20 October 1604, James VI and I proclaimed himself as "King of Great Brittaine, France and Ireland", a title that continued to be used by many of his successors.[18] When James came to the English throne, some elaborate pageants were staged. One pageant performed on the streets of London in 1605 was described in Anthony Munday's Triumphs of Reunited Britannia: On a mount triangular, as the island of Britain itself is described to be, we seat in the supreme place, under the shape of a fair and beautiful nymph, Britannia herself... Britain's first road atlas was updated in a series of editions titled from the early 18th into the early 19th century using the title Britannia Depicta. During the reign of Charles II, Britannia made her first appearance on English coins on a farthing of 1672 (see Depiction on British coinage and postage stamps below). With the constitutional unification of England with Scotland in 1707 and then with Ireland in 1800, Britannia became an increasingly important symbol and a strong rallying point among Britons. British power, which depended on a liberal political system and the supremacy of the navy, lent these attributes to the image of Britannia. By the time of Queen Victoria, Britannia had been renewed. Still depicted as a young woman with brown or golden hair, she kept her Corinthian helmet and her white robes, but now she held Neptune's trident and often sat or stood before the ocean and tall-masted ships representing British naval power. She also usually held or stood beside a Greek hoplite shield, which sported the British Union Flag: also at her feet was often the British Lion, an animal found on the arms of England, Scotland and the Prince of Wales. Neptune is shown symbolically passing his trident to Britannia in the 1847 fresco "Neptune Resigning to Britannia the Empire of the Sea" by William Dyce, a painting Victoria commissioned for her Osborne House on the Isle of Wight. 1914 Russian poster depicting the Triple Entente – Britannia (right) and Marianne (left) flank Mother Russia, with Britannia's association with the sea provided by an anchor New Zealanders adopted a similar personification of their country in Zealandia, Britannia's daughter, who appeared on postage stamps at the turn of the 20th century[19] and still features in the New Zealand Coat of Arms.[20] Perhaps the best analogy is that Britannia is to the United Kingdom and the British Empire what Marianne is to France or perhaps what Columbia is to the United States. Britannia became a very potent and more common figure in times of war, and represented British liberties and democracy. Modern associations During the 1990s the term Cool Britannia (drawn from a humorous version by the Bonzo Dog Band of the song "Rule Britannia", with words by James Thomson [1700–1748], which is often used as an unofficial national anthem), was used to describe the contemporary United Kingdom.[21] The phrase referred to the fashionable scenes of the era, with a new generation of pop groups and style magazines, successful young fashion designers, and a surge of new restaurants and hotels. Cool Britannia represented late-1990s Britain as a fashionable place to be.[22] Britannia is sometimes used in political cartoons to symbol the United Kingdom's relationship with other countries.[23] Depiction on British currency and postage stamps Britannia on coins of George VI (r. 1936–1952) 1936 halfpenny 1937 penny Coinage Although the archetypical image of Britannia seated with a shield first appeared on Roman bronze coins of the 1st century AD struck under Hadrian, Britannia's first appearance on British coinage was on the farthing in 1672, though earlier pattern versions had appeared in 1665, followed by the halfpenny later the same year. The figure of Britannia was said by Samuel Pepys to have been modelled on Frances Teresa Stuart, the future Duchess of Richmond,[15] who was famous at the time for refusing to become the mistress of Charles II, despite the King's strong infatuation with her. Britannia then appeared on the British halfpenny coin throughout the rest of the 17th century and thereafter until 1936. The halfpennies issued during the reign of Queen Anne have Britannia closely resembling the queen herself.[24] When the Bank of England was granted a charter in 1694, the directors decided within days that the device for their official seal should represent 'Brittannia sitting on looking on a Bank of Mony' (sic). Britannia also appeared on the penny coin between 1797 and 1967, occasional issues such as the fourpence under William IV between 1836 and 1837, and on the 50 pence coin between 1969 and 2008.[25] See "External Links" below for examples of all these coins and others. In the spring of 2008, the Royal Mint unveiled new coin designs "reflecting a more modern twenty-first century Britain"[26] which do not feature the image of Britannia. The government pointed out, however, that earlier-design 50p coins will remain in circulation for the foreseeable future.[27] Also Britannia still appeared on the gold and silver "Britannia" bullion coins issued annually by the Royal Mint. A new definitive £2 coin was issued in 2015, with a new image of Britannia. In late 2015, a limited edition (100000 run) £50 coin was produced, bearing the image of Britannia on one side and Queen Elizabeth II on the obverse.[28] 2021 Britannia one ounce gold bullion coin featuring four advanced security features for the first time In October 2020, The Royal Mint released the 2021 Britannia bullion coin range. The original 1987 coin design by Philip Nathan was enhanced with new security features. The Royal Mint claims this makes the Britannia "the world's most visually secure bullion coin." The security features include a latent image, micro-text, surface animation and tincture lines.[29][third-party source needed] In 2021, the Royal Mint issued a new range of commemorative coins featuring a redesigned Britannia as a woman of colour.[30] Banknotes Main article: Bank of England note issues A 1952 Bank of England five pound note or "white fiver" showing Britannia in the top left corner A 1922 King George V Seahorses postage stamp, featuring Britannia with an Irish Free State overprint A figure of Britannia appeared on the "white fiver" (a five pound note printed in black and white) from 1855 for more than a century, until 1957.[31] From 1928 "Britannia Series A" ten shilling and one pound notes were printed with a seated Britannia bearing both a spear and an olive branch.[32] The 25 cents fractional paper currency of the Dominion of Canada (1870, 1900 and 1923 respectively) all depict Britannia. Postage stamps Britannia also featured on the high value Great Britain definitive postage stamps issued during the reign of George V (known as 'seahorses') and is depicted on the £10 stamp first issued in 1993. Britannia watermark in paper The Britannia watermark has been widely used in papermaking, usually showing her seated. An example can be found at papermoulds.typepad.com Brit Awards Britannia is depicted in the Brit Award statuette, the British Phonographic Industry's annual music awards.[33][34] The statuette of Britannia has been regularly redesigned by some of the best known British designers, stylists and artists, including Damien Hirst, Tracey Emin, Sir Peter Blake and also the late Dame Vivienne Westwood and Dame Zaha Hadid.[33][34] Namesakes See also: Britannia (disambiguation) King George V's famed racing yacht HMY Britannia in the 1890s Caricature of Britannia being flogged (c. 1770) Britannia Airways with depiction of Britannia on the livery The name "Britannia", symbolising Britain and British patriotism, has been adopted for a variety of purposes, including: Britannia silver, a high-grade alloy of silver introduced in Britain in 1697. Britannia coins, a series of British gold bullion coins issued since 1987, which have nominal values of 100, 50, 25, and 10 pounds. HMS Britannia, any of eight vessels of the Royal Navy. HMY Britannia, King George V's famed racing yacht, scuttled in 1936. K1 Britannia is a 1994 replica (refit in 2012). Britannia Royal Naval College, the Royal Navy's officer training college. The former Royal Yacht Britannia, the Royal Family's personal yacht, now retired in Leith, Edinburgh Scotland. RMS Britannia, the first steam ocean liner owned by Samuel Cunard in 1840. SS Britannia, a 1925 British liner, sunk by the German auxiliary cruiser Thor in 1941 with the loss of 122 crew and 127 passengers.[35] MV Britannia, the flagship of the P&O Cruises fleet, which came into service in 2015. Bristol Type 175 Britannia, a 1952 British turbo-prop airliner. Bristol Type 603S3 Britannia, a 1983 British luxury car. Pugnaces Britanniae, war dog of Britain. The patriotic song "Rule, Britannia!", set to music in 1740. Company names such as Britannia Building Society, Britannia Airways and Britannia Industries. The Britannia Class, an alternative name for the BR Standard Class 7 series of steam locomotives produced between 1951 and 1954, the first of the BR "standard" classes. Preserved Class 7 locomotive No. 70000, built in 1951, was also named Britannia. The Britannia Building Society traded for over a century before deciding to merge with The Co-operative Bank in 2009 and now trades as Britannia. Britannia is a community south of the town of Bacup, in Lancashire, UK, and "home" of the Britannia Coconut Dancers. Britannia Sea Scouts is a sea scouting group connected to Sea Scouts New Zealand located in Evans Bay, in the Wellington zone of New Zealand. Britannia was started in 1927. See also Caledonia, a personification of Scotland Hibernia (personification), a personification of Ireland Kathleen Ni Houlihan, a personification of Ireland Prydain, Welsh name for Great Britain in both ancient and modern times William Camden, author of Britannia, author of topographical and historical survey of all of Great Britain and Ireland, first published in 1586 Britannia Superior Britannia Inferior References  Delahunty, Andrew; Dignen, Sheila (2010), "Britannia", A Dictionary of Reference and Allusion (3rd ed.), Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/acref/9780199567454.001.0001, ISBN 978-0-19-956745-4, retrieved 15 February 2021  Cannon, John; Crowcroft, Robert (2015), "Britannia", A Dictionary of British History (3rd ed.), Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/acref/9780191758027.001.0001, ISBN 978-0-19-175802-7, retrieved 15 February 2021  Hargreaves, A. S. (2015), "Britannia", in Crowcroft, Robert; Cannon, John (eds.), The Oxford Companion to British History (2nd ed.), Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/acref/9780199677832.001.0001, ISBN 978-0-19-967783-2, retrieved 15 February 2021  "Britannia". Collins Dictionary. Retrieved 14 February 2021.  Warmington, Eric Herbert (2012), "Albion", in Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Antony J.; Eidinow, Esther (eds.), The Oxford Classical Dictionary (4th ed.), Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/acref/9780199545568.001.0001, ISBN 978-0-19-954556-8, retrieved 15 February 2021  Millett, Martin J. (2012), "Britain, Roman", in Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Antony; Eidinow, Esther (eds.), The Oxford Classical Dictionary (4th ed.), Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/acref/9780199545568.001.0001, ISBN 978-0-19-954556-8, retrieved 15 February 2021  Richmond, Ian Archibald; Millett, Martin J. Millett (2012), "Caledonia", in Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Antony; Eidinow, Esther (eds.), The Oxford Classical Dictionary (4th ed.), Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/acref/9780199545568.001.0001, ISBN 978-0-19-954556-8, retrieved 14 February 2021  Hewitt, Virginia (2017) [2004]. "Britannia (fl. 1st–21st cent.), allegory of a nation, emblem of empire, and patriotic icon". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/68196. Retrieved 15 February 2021. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.)  Snyder, p. 12.  Allen, p. 174.  Davies, p. 47.  Creighton, John (31 January 2006). Britannia: The Creation of a Roman Province. Routledge. p. 3. ISBN 9781134318407.  "Definition - Numen - The Latin Lexicon - An Online Latin Dictionary - A Dictionary of the Latin Language". latinlexicon.org.  Roman Britain By Timothy W. Potter and Catherine Johns, University of California Press, 1992 p.40  "Britannia on British Coins". Chard. Retrieved 25 June 2006.  Fleuriot, Léon (1980). Les Origines de la Bretagne: l'émigration [The origins of Brittany: emigration] (in French). Paris: Payot. pp. 52–53. ISBN 2228127108.  "Britishness". Oxford English Dictionary Online. September 2008. Retrieved 14 September 2010.  Velde, Francois. "Royal Arms, Styles, and Titles of Great Britain". heraldica.org.  1901 Penny Universal, Stamps NZ. Retrieved 25 January 2010.  National Coat of Arms of New Zealand Archived 5 December 2010 at the Wayback Machine, Heraldry of the World. Retrieved 25 January 2010.  J. Ayto, Movers and Shakers: a Chronology of Words that Shaped our Age (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006), ISBN 0-19-861452-7, p. 233.  "Cool Britannia". BBC News. Retrieved 9 November 2016  e.g. by Ben Jennings in The Guardian.  "3 – The Halfpenny". Coins of the UK. Tony Clayton.  Morris, Steven (28 January 2008). "Brown blamed as Britannia gets the boot". The Guardian. Retrieved 28 January 2008.  "2008 Emblems of Britain Silver Proof Collection". The Royal Mint. Archived from the original on 14 October 2008.  "Royal Mint unveils coin designs". BBC News. 2 April 2008.  "Britannia 2015 UK £50 Fine Silver Coin". Royal Mint. Archived 3 December 2015 at the Wayback Machine  "The Royal Mint unveil the world's most visually secure bullion coin". Royal Mint. Retrieved 24 May 2022.  "For The First Time, The Royal Mint Issues A Coin Featuring Britannia As A Woman Of Colour" British Vogue  "£5 note, Bank of England". British Museum. Archived from the original on 3 February 2013. Retrieved 24 January 2013.  Sharples, BS (17 June 2009). "A Short History of English Banknotes". Retrieved 24 January 2013.  "Dame Zaha Hadid's Brit Awards statuette design unveiled". BBC. 1 December 2016.  "Damien Hirst's 2013 Brit Award statue unveiled". BBC. 1 December 2016.  Wrecksite: SS Britannia (+1941) Notes Allen, Stephen (2007). Lords of Battle: The World of the Celtic Warrior. Osprey Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84176-948-6.[permanent dead link] Collingwood, Robin George (1998). Roman Britain and the English Settlements. Biblo & Tannen Publishers. ISBN 0-8196-1160-3. Davies, Norman (2000). The Isles a History. Macmillan. ISBN 0-333-69283-7. Hewitt, Virginia. "Britannia (fl. 1st–21st cent.)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, online edition 2007, accessed 28 Aug 2011 Snyder, Christopher (2003). The Britons. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 0-631-22260-X. M. Dresser (ed.), 'Britannia', Patriotism: the making and unmaking of British national identity, vol. 3 R. Samuel, National fictions (1989), pp. 26–49 Britannia depicta: quality, value and security, National Postal Museum (1993) H. Mattingly, Nerva to Hadrian, reprint (1976), vol. 3 of Coins of the Roman empire in the British Museum J. M. C. Toynbee, The Hadrianic school: a chapter in the history of Greek art (1974) M. Henig, 'Britannia', Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae, 3/1 (1983), pp. 167–69 K. T. Erim, 'A new relief showing Claudius and Britannia from Aphrodisias', Britannia, 13 (1982), pp. 277–81 H. Peacham, Minerva Britannia, or, A garden of heroical devises (1612) J. Thomson, Britannia: a poem (1729) R. Strong, Gloriana, the portraits of Queen Elizabeth I (1987) H. A. Atherton, Political prints in the age of Hogarth. A study of the ideographic representation of politics (1974) External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Britannia. Britannia on British coins and medals – Guy de la Bédoyère David Dimbleby. "Age of Conquest". Seven Ages of Britain. 6:56 minutes in. BBC 1. 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For other uses, see Bojo (disambiguation). The Right Honourable Boris Johnson Hon FRIBA Official portrait of Boris Johnson as prime minister of the United Kingdom Official portrait, 2019 Prime Minister of the United Kingdom In office 24 July 2019 – 6 September 2022 Monarch Elizabeth II Deputy Dominic Raab[a] Preceded by Theresa May Succeeded by Liz Truss Leader of the Conservative Party In office 23 July 2019 – 5 September 2022 Preceded by Theresa May Succeeded by Liz Truss Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs In office 13 July 2016 – 9 July 2018 Prime Minister Theresa May Preceded by Philip Hammond Succeeded by Jeremy Hunt Mayor of London In office 3 May 2008 – 9 May 2016 Deputy Richard Barnes Victoria Borwick Roger Evans Preceded by Ken Livingstone Succeeded by Sadiq Khan Shadow Minister 2005–2007 Higher Education 2004 Arts Member of Parliament for Uxbridge and South Ruislip In office 7 May 2015 – 12 June 2023 Preceded by John Randall Succeeded by Steve Tuckwell Member of Parliament for Henley In office 7 June 2001 – 4 June 2008 Preceded by Michael Heseltine Succeeded by John Howell Personal details Born Alexander Boris de Pfeffel Johnson 19 June 1964 (age 59) New York City, US Citizenship United Kingdom United States (until 2016)[1] Political party Conservative Spouses Allegra Mostyn-Owen ​ ​(1987⁠–⁠1993)​ Marina Wheeler ​ ​(m. 1993; div. 2020)​ Carrie Symonds ​(m. 2021)​ Parents Stanley Johnson Charlotte Fawcett Relatives Rachel Johnson (sister) Jo Johnson (brother) Julia Johnson (half-sister) James Fawcett (grandfather) Edmund Fawcett (uncle) Ali Kemal (great-grandfather) Elias Avery Lowe (great-grandfather) Helen Tracy Lowe-Porter (great-grandmother) Lara Johnson-Wheeler (daughter) Residence Brightwell Manor Education Eton College Balliol College, Oxford (BA) Occupation Politicianauthorjournalist Signature Website UK Parliament profile Boris Johnson's voice Duration: 3 minutes and 25 seconds.3:25 Johnson's address to the nation on its departure from the European Union Recorded 31 January 2020 This article is part of a series about Boris Johnson Political positionsElectoral historyPublic image MP for Uxbridge and South RuislipMP for HenleyEditor of The Spectator Mayor of London European Union referendum Foreign Secretary Party leadership campaigns Prime Minister of the United Kingdom PremiershipInternational tripsMinister for the Union First ministry and term First ministrySuspension of rebel MPsBrexitBenn Act2019 prorogation Supreme Court caseBrexit deal renegotiation revised deal2019 general election Get Brexit Done Second ministry and term Second ministry departures2020 reshuffle2021 reshuffleEU Withdrawal Agreement Northern Ireland ProtocolEU trade negotiation cooperation agreementCOVID-19 pandemic government responselockdownvaccinationscontractscontract controversiesDominic Cummings scandalPartygate Privileges Committee investigationDeath and funeral of Prince Philip, Duke of EdinburghEvacuations from AfghanistanLevelling upCOP26Refurb controversyOwen Paterson scandalRwanda asylum planProposed NI increaseRussian invasion of Ukraine economic impactBritish aid to UkraineCost of living crisisConservative Party confidence voteChris Pincher scandalGovernment crisis July 2022 reshuffleleadership electionHouse of Commons confidence voteResignation Honours Bibliography In popular culture vte Alexander Boris de Pfeffel Johnson (born 19 June 1964) is a British politician and writer who was Prime Minister of the United Kingdom and Leader of the Conservative Party from 2019 to 2022. He was previously Foreign Secretary from 2016 to 2018 and Mayor of London from 2008 to 2016. He was Member of Parliament (MP) for Henley from 2001 to 2008 and Uxbridge and South Ruislip from 2015 to 2023. Johnson attended Eton College and Balliol College, Oxford in his youth; and he was elected president of the Oxford Union in 1986. In 1989, he began writing for The Daily Telegraph, and from 1999 to 2005 he was the editor of The Spectator. He became a member of the shadow cabinet of Michael Howard in 2001 before being sacked in 2004. After Howard resigned, he became a member of David Cameron's shadow cabinet. He was elected Mayor of London in 2008 and resigned from the House of Commons to focus his attention on the mayoralty. He was re-elected mayor in 2012, but did not run for re-election in 2016. At the 2015 general election he was elected MP for Uxbridge and South Ruislip. Johnson was a prominent figure in the Brexit campaign in the 2016 European Union membership referendum. After the referendum, Prime Minister Theresa May appointed him foreign secretary. He resigned from the position in 2018 in protest at both the Chequers Agreement and May's approach to Brexit. Johnson succeeded May as prime minister. He re-opened Brexit negotiations with the European Union and in early September he prorogued Parliament; the Supreme Court later ruled the action to have been unlawful. After agreeing to a revised Brexit withdrawal agreement but failing to win parliamentary support, Johnson called a snap general election to be held in December 2019, which the Conservative Party won. During Johnson's premiership, the government responded to the COVID-19 pandemic by introducing various emergency powers to mitigate its impact and approved a nationwide vaccination programme. He also responded to the Russian invasion of Ukraine by imposing sanctions on Russia and authorising foreign aid and weapons shipments to Ukraine.[2] In the Partygate scandal it was found that numerous parties had been held at 10 Downing Street during national COVID-19 lockdowns, and COVID-19 social distancing laws were breached by 83 individuals, including Johnson, who in April 2022 was issued with a fixed penalty notice. The publishing of the Sue Gray report in May 2022 and a widespread sense of dissatisfaction led in June 2022 to a vote of confidence in his leadership amongst Conservative MPs, which he won. In July 2022, revelations over his appointment of Chris Pincher as deputy chief whip of the party while knowing of allegations of sexual misconduct against him led to a mass resignation of members of his government and to Johnson announcing his resignation as prime minister. He was succeeded by Liz Truss but remained in the House of Commons as a backbencher until he resigned in June 2023, days before the Privileges Committee investigation on his conduct unanimously found that he had lied to the Commons on numerous occasions. Johnson is seen by many as a controversial figure in British politics.[3][4] His supporters have praised him for being humorous, witty, and entertaining,[5] with an appeal reaching beyond traditional Conservative Party voters, making him, in their view, an electoral asset to the party.[6][7] Conversely, his critics have accused him of lying, elitism, cronyism and bigotry.[8][9][10] As prime minister, his supporters praised him for "getting Brexit done", overseeing the UK's COVID-19 vaccination programme, which was amongst the fastest in the world, and being one of the first world leaders to offer humanitarian support to Ukraine following the Russian invasion of the country.[11][12][13] His tenure also saw several controversies and scandals, and is viewed as the most scandalous premiership of modern times by historians and biographers alike.[14] Johnson has commonly been described as a one-nation conservative, and political commentators have characterised his political style as opportunistic, populist and pragmatic.[15][16][17] Early life and education Childhood Alexander Boris de Pfeffel Johnson was born on 19 June 1964 in the Upper East Side of Manhattan, New York City,[18][19] to Stanley Johnson, then studying economics at Columbia University,[20] and Charlotte Fawcett,[21] an artist. Johnson is one of only two British prime ministers to have been an American citizen (see Honorary citizenship of the United States).[22][23] Johnson's parents returned to the UK in September 1964 so Charlotte could study at the University of Oxford.[24] She lived with her son in Summertown, Oxford, and in September 1965 she gave birth to a daughter, Rachel.[25] In July 1965, the family moved to Crouch End in North London,[26] and in February 1966 they relocated to Washington, DC, where Stanley worked with the World Bank.[27] Stanley then took a job with a policy panel on population control, and moved the family to Norwalk, Connecticut, in June.[28] A third child, Leo, was born in September 1967.[29] Ashdown House preparatory school, East Sussex, attended by Johnson from 1975 to 1977 The family returned to the UK in 1969, and they settled into West Nethercote Farm, Somerset, Stanley's family home in Exmoor.[30] His father was regularly absent, leaving Johnson to be raised largely by his mother, assisted by au pairs.[31] As a child, Johnson was quiet, studious,[26] and deaf, resulting in several operations to insert grommets into his ears.[32] He and his siblings were encouraged to engage in intellectual activities from a young age.[33] Johnson's earliest recorded ambition was to be "world king".[34] Having no other friends, the siblings became very close.[35] In late 1969, the family moved to Maida Vale in West London, while Stanley began post-graduate research at the London School of Economics.[36] In 1970, Charlotte and the children briefly returned to Nethercote, where Johnson attended Winsford Village School, before returning to London to settle in Primrose Hill,[37] where they were educated at Primrose Hill Primary School.[38] A fourth child, Joseph, was born in late 1971.[39] After Stanley secured employment at the European Commission in April 1973, he moved his family to Uccle, Brussels, where Johnson attended the European School, Brussels I and learnt to speak French.[40][41] Charlotte had a nervous breakdown and was hospitalised with depression, after which Johnson and his siblings were sent back to the UK in 1975 to attend Ashdown House, a preparatory boarding school in East Sussex.[42] There, he developed interests in rugby, Ancient Greek, and Latin.[43] In December 1978 his parents' relationship broke down; they divorced in 1980,[44] and Charlotte moved to Notting Hill, London, where her children joined her for much of their time.[45] Eton and Oxford: 1977–1987 As a kid I was extremely spotty, extremely nerdy and horribly swotty. My idea of a really good time was to travel across London on the tube to visit the British Museum. — Boris Johnson[46] Johnson studied Classics at Balliol College, Oxford. Johnson gained a King's Scholarship to study at Eton College, a boarding school near Windsor, Berkshire.[47] Arriving in the autumn term of 1977,[48] he began going by his middle name Boris,[49] and developed "the eccentric English persona" for which he became famous.[50] He denounced Catholicism and joined the Church of England.[51] School reports complained about his idleness, complacency, and lateness,[52] but he was popular at Eton.[50] Johnson's friends were largely from the wealthy upper classes; his best friends were Darius Guppy and Charles Spencer. Both would go on to accompany him at the University of Oxford and remained his friends into adulthood.[53] Johnson excelled in English and the Classics, winning prizes in both,[54] and became secretary of the school debating society[55] and editor of the school newspaper.[56] In late 1981, he became a member of Pop,[57] a small, self-selecting elite group of school prefects. After leaving Eton, Johnson went on a gap year to Australia, where he taught English and Latin at Timbertop, an Outward Bound-inspired campus of Geelong Grammar, an independent boarding school.[58][59][60] Johnson won a scholarship to study Literae Humaniores at Balliol College, Oxford, a four-year course in Classics, ancient languages, literature, history, and philosophy.[61] Matriculating in late 1983,[62] he was one of a generation of Oxford undergraduates who dominated British politics and media in the early 21st century, including Cameron, William Hague, Michael Gove, Jeremy Hunt and Nick Boles.[63] While at Oxford, Johnson joined the college's rugby union team as a tighthead prop.[64] To his later regret, he joined the Bullingdon Club, an exclusive drinking society notorious for vandalism.[65][66][67] Many years later, a group photograph including himself and Cameron in Bullingdon Club formal dress led to much negative press coverage. While at Oxford, he began a relationship with Allegra Mostyn-Owen, cover girl for Tatler magazine and daughter of Christie's Education chairman William Mostyn-Owen. They became engaged.[68] Johnson was popular and well known at Oxford.[69] Alongside Guppy, he edited the university's satirical magazine Tributary.[70] In 1984, Johnson was elected secretary of the Oxford Union,[71] and campaigned unsuccessfully for the position of Union President.[72] In 1986, Johnson ran successfully for President,[73] but his term was not distinguished or memorable,[74] and questions were raised regarding his competence and seriousness.[75] At graduation, Johnson was awarded an upper second-class degree,[76][77] and was deeply unhappy he did not receive a first.[78] Early career The Times and The Daily Telegraph: 1987–1994 In September 1987, Johnson and Mostyn-Owen married.[79] They settled in West Kensington, London.[80] In late 1987, through family connections, he began work as a graduate trainee at The Times.[81] Scandal erupted when Johnson wrote an article for the newspaper on the archaeological discovery of Edward II's palace, having invented a quote which he falsely attributed to the historian Colin Lucas, his godfather. After the paper's editor, Charles Wilson, learnt of the matter, he dismissed Johnson.[82] Johnson secured employment on the lead-writing desk of The Daily Telegraph, having met its editor, Max Hastings, while at university.[83] His articles appealed to the newspaper's Conservative-voting "Middle England" readership,[84] and he was known for his distinctive literary style, replete with old-fashioned phrasing and for regularly referring to the readership as "my friends".[85] In early 1989, Johnson was appointed to the newspaper's Brussels bureau to report on the European Commission,[86] remaining in the post until 1994.[87] A strong critic of the integrationist Commission president Jacques Delors, he established himself as one of the city's few Eurosceptic journalists.[88] He wrote articles about euromyths: that Brussels had recruited sniffer dogs to ensure that all manure smelt the same,[89] they were about to dictate the acceptable curve of British bananas,[b] limit the power of their vacuum cleaners[91][c] and order women to return their old sex toys.[89] He wrote that euro notes made people impotent and that a plan to blow up the Berlaymont building was in place because asbestos cladding made the building too dangerous to inhabit.[89] Many of his fellow journalists were critical of his articles, saying they often contained lies designed to discredit the commission.[94] The Europhile Conservative politician Chris Patten later said that Johnson was "one of the greatest exponents of fake journalism".[87] Johnson opposed banning handguns after the Dunblane school massacre, writing in his column "Nanny is confiscating their toys. It is like one of those vast Indian programmes of compulsory vasectomy."[95] According to one of his biographers, Sonia Purnell, – who was Johnson's Brussels deputy[87] – he helped make Euroscepticism "an attractive and emotionally resonant cause for the Right", whereas it had been associated previously with the Left.[96] Johnson's articles exacerbated tensions between the Conservative Party's Eurosceptic and Europhile factions. As a result, he earned the mistrust of many party members.[97] His writings were also a key influence on the emergence of the eurosceptic UK Independence Party (UKIP) in the early 1990s.[96] Conrad Black, then proprietor of The Daily Telegraph, said Johnson "was such an effective correspondent for us in Brussels that he greatly influenced British opinion on this country's relations with Europe".[98] In February 1990, Johnson's wife Allegra broke up with him; after several attempts at reconciliation, their marriage ended in April 1993.[99][100] He began a relationship with childhood friend Marina Wheeler, who had moved to Brussels in 1990.[101] They were married in May 1993.[102] Soon after, Marina gave birth to a daughter.[103] Johnson and his new wife settled in Islington, North London,[104] an area known for its association with the left-liberal intelligentsia. Under the influence of this milieu and of his wife, Johnson moved in a more liberal direction on issues such as climate change, LGBT rights and race relations.[105] While in Islington, the couple had three more children, all given the surname Johnson-Wheeler.[106] They were sent to the local Canonbury Primary School and then to private secondary schools.[107] Devoting much time to his children, Johnson wrote a book of verse, The Perils of the Pushy Parents: A Cautionary Tale, which was published to largely poor reviews.[108] Political columnist: 1994–1999 Back in London, Hastings turned down Johnson's request to become a war reporter,[109] instead promoting him to assistant editor and chief political columnist.[110] Johnson's column received praise for being ideologically eclectic and distinctively written, and earned him Commentator of the Year Award at the What the Papers Say awards.[111] Some critics condemned his writing style as bigotry; in columns he used the words "piccaninnies" and "watermelon smiles" when referring to Africans, championed European colonialism in Uganda[112][113][114] and referred to gay men as "tank-topped bumboys".[115] In 1993, Johnson outlined his desire to run as a Conservative in the 1994 European Parliament elections. Andrew Mitchell convinced Major not to veto Johnson's candidacy, but Johnson could not find a constituency.[116] He turned his attention to obtaining a seat in the House of Commons instead. After being rejected as Conservative candidate for Holborn and St. Pancras, he was selected the Conservative candidate for Clwyd South in north Wales, then a Labour Party safe seat. Spending six weeks campaigning, he attained 9,091 votes (23 per cent) in the 1997 general election, losing to Labour candidate Martyn Jones.[117] Scandal erupted in June 1995 when a recording of a 1990 telephone conversation between Johnson and his friend Darius Guppy was made public.[118] In it, Guppy said that his criminal activities involving insurance fraud were being investigated by News of the World journalist Stuart Collier, and he asked Johnson to provide him with Collier's private address, seeking to have the latter beaten. Johnson agreed, although he expressed concern that he would be associated with the attack.[118] When the phone conversation was published, Johnson stated that ultimately he had not obliged Guppy's request. Hastings reprimanded Johnson but did not dismiss him.[118] Johnson was given a regular column in The Spectator, sister publication to The Daily Telegraph, which attracted mixed reviews and was often thought rushed.[119] In 1999, he was also given a column reviewing new cars in the American men's monthly magazine GQ.[120] The large number of parking fines that Johnson acquired while testing cars frustrated staff.[115] At The Daily Telegraph and The Spectator, he was consistently late delivering copy, forcing staff to stay late to accommodate him; some related that if they published without his work, he would shout at them with expletives.[121] Johnson's April 1998 appearance on the BBC's satirical current affairs show Have I Got News for You brought him national fame.[122] He was invited back on to later episodes, including as a guest presenter; for his 2003 appearance, Johnson was nominated for the BAFTA Television Award for Best Entertainment Performance.[123][124] After these appearances, he came to be recognised on the street, and was invited to appear on other shows, such as Top Gear, Parkinson, Breakfast with Frost, and Question Time.[125] The Spectator and MP for Henley: 1999–2008 In July 1999, Conrad Black offered Johnson the editorship of The Spectator on the condition he abandon his parliamentary aspirations; Johnson agreed.[126] While retaining The Spectator's traditional right-wing bent, Johnson welcomed contributions from leftist writers and cartoonists.[127] Under Johnson's editorship, the magazine's circulation grew by 10% to 62,000 and it became profitable.[128] His editorship also drew criticism; some opined that under him The Spectator avoided serious issues,[129] while colleagues became annoyed that he was regularly absent from the office, meetings, and events.[130] He gained a reputation as a poor political pundit because of incorrect political predictions.[129] His father-in-law Charles Wheeler and others strongly criticised him for allowing Spectator columnist Taki Theodoracopulos to publish racist and antisemitic language.[131][132] Journalist Charlotte Edwardes wrote in The Times in 2019 that Johnson had squeezed her thigh at a private lunch at the Spectator in 1999 and that another woman had told her he had done the same to her. A spokesman denied the allegation.[133][134] In 2004, Johnson published an editorial in The Spectator after the murder of Ken Bigley suggesting that Liverpudlians were wallowing in their victim status and "hooked on grief" over the Hillsborough disaster, which Johnson partly blamed on "drunken fans".[135][136] In an appendix added to a later edition of his 2005 book The Dream of Rome, Tell MAMA and the Muslim Council of Britain criticised Johnson for arguing Islam has caused the Muslim world to be "literally centuries behind" the West.[137] Becoming an MP The selection of Boris Johnson ... confirms the Tory Party's increasing weakness for celebrity personalities over the dreary exigencies of politics. Johnson, for all his gifts, is unlikely to grace any future Tory cabinet. Indeed, he is not known for his excessive interest in serious policy matters, and it is hard to see him grubbing away at administrative detail as an obscure, hardworking junior minister for social security. To maintain his funny man reputation he will no doubt find himself refining his Bertie Wooster interpretation to the point where the impersonation becomes the man. –Max Hastings, London Evening Standard, [138] Following Michael Heseltine's retirement, Johnson decided to stand as Conservative candidate for Henley, a Conservative safe seat in Oxfordshire.[139] The local Conservative branch selected him although it was split over Johnson's candidacy. Some thought him amusing and charming while others disliked his flippant attitude and perceived lack of knowledge of the local area.[140] Assisted by his television fame, Johnson won the seat in the 2001 general election.[141] Alongside his Islington home, Johnson bought a farmhouse outside Thame in his new constituency.[142] He regularly attended Henley social events and occasionally wrote for the Henley Standard.[143] His constituency surgeries proved popular, and he joined local campaigns to stop the closure of Townlands Hospital and the local air ambulance.[144] In Parliament, Johnson was appointed to a standing committee assessing the Proceeds of Crime Bill, but missed many of its meetings.[145] Despite his credentials as a public speaker, his speeches in the House of Commons were widely deemed lacklustre.[146] He attended around half of Commons votes,[147] usually supporting the Conservative party line.[148] In free votes, he demonstrated a more socially liberal attitude, supporting the Gender Recognition Act 2004 and the repeal of Section 28.[149][150] However, in 2001, Johnson had spoken out against plans to repeal Section 28, saying it was "Labour's appalling agenda, encouraging the teaching of homosexuality in schools".[151][152] After initially stating he would not, he supported the government's plans to join the United States in the 2003 invasion of Iraq,[142] and in April 2003 visited occupied Baghdad.[153] In August 2004, he backed unsuccessful impeachment procedures against Prime Minister Tony Blair for "high crimes and misdemeanours" regarding the war,[154] and in December 2006 described the invasion as "a colossal mistake and misadventure".[155] Although labelling Johnson "ineffably duplicitous" for breaking his promise not to become an MP, Black decided not to dismiss him because he "helped promote the magazine and raise its circulation".[156] Johnson remained editor of The Spectator, while also writing columns for The Daily Telegraph and GQ, and making television appearances.[157] His 2001 book, Friends, Voters, Countrymen: Jottings on the Stump, recounted that year's election campaign,[158] while 2003's Lend Me Your Ears collected previously published columns and articles.[159] In 2004, HarperCollins published his first novel: Seventy-Two Virgins: A Comedy of Errors revolved around the life of a Conservative MP and contained autobiographical elements.[160] Responding to criticism that he was juggling too many jobs, he cited Winston Churchill and Benjamin Disraeli as exemplars who combined political and literary careers.[161] To manage stress, he took up jogging and cycling,[162] and became so well known for the latter that Gimson suggested he was "perhaps the most famous cyclist in Britain".[163] Following William Hague's resignation as Conservative leader, the party elected Iain Duncan Smith.[164] Johnson had a strained relationship with Duncan Smith, and The Spectator became critical of his party leadership.[165] Duncan Smith was succeeded by Michael Howard in November 2003; Howard deemed Johnson to be the most popular Conservative politician with the electorate and appointed him vice-chairman of the party, responsible for overseeing its electoral campaign.[166] In his Shadow Cabinet reshuffle of May 2004, Howard appointed Johnson as shadow arts minister.[167] In October, Howard ordered Johnson to apologise publicly in Liverpool for publishing a Spectator article – anonymously written by Simon Heffer – which said the crowds at the Hillsborough disaster had contributed to the incident and that Liverpudlians had a predilection for reliance on the welfare state.[168][169] In November 2004, the tabloids revealed that since 2000 Johnson had been having an affair with Spectator columnist Petronella Wyatt, resulting in two abortions.[170] After the allegations were proven, Howard dismissed him as vice-chairman and shadow arts minister when he refused to resign.[171][172] Second term As shadow minister for higher education, Johnson visited various universities (as here at the University of Nottingham in 2006) Johnson in 2007 At the 2005 general election, Johnson was re-elected MP for Henley.[173] Labour won the election and Howard stood down as Conservative leader; Johnson backed David Cameron as his successor.[174] After Cameron was elected, he appointed Johnson as the shadow higher education minister.[175] Interested in streamlining university funding,[176] Johnson supported Labour's proposed top-up fees.[177] He campaigned in 2006 to become the Rector of the University of Edinburgh, but his support for top-up fees damaged his campaign, and he came third.[178][179] In April 2006, the News of the World alleged that Johnson was having an affair with journalist Anna Fazackerley; the pair did not comment, and shortly afterwards Johnson began employing Fazackerley.[180][181] In September 2006, Papua New Guinea's High Commission protested after he compared the Conservatives' frequently changing leadership to cannibalism in the country.[182] In 2005, The Spectator's new chief executive, Andrew Neil, dismissed Johnson as editor.[183] To make up for this loss of income, Johnson negotiated with The Daily Telegraph to raise his salary from £200,000 to £250,000, averaging £5,000 per column.[184][185] He presented a popular history television show, The Dream of Rome, which was broadcast in January 2006; a book followed in February.[186] A sequel, After Rome, focused on early Islamic history.[187] In 2007, he earned £540,000, making him the third-highest-earning MP that year.[188] Mayor of London (2008–2016) Main article: Mayoralty of Boris Johnson Mayoral election: 2007–2008 Main article: 2008 London mayoral election See also: 2007 London Conservative Party mayoral selection Johnson pledged to replace the city's articulated buses with New Routemaster buses if elected mayor In September, Johnson was selected as the Conservative candidate for Mayor of London after a public London-wide primary.[189][190] Johnson's campaign focused on reducing youth crime, making public transport safer, and replacing the articulated buses with an updated version of the AEC Routemaster.[7] Targeting the Conservative-leaning suburbs of outer London, it capitalised on perceptions that the Labour Mayoralty had neglected them in favour of inner London.[191] His campaign emphasised his popularity, even among those who opposed his policies,[192] with opponents complaining a common attitude among voters was: "I'm voting for Boris because he is a laugh."[7] The campaign of Labour incumbent Ken Livingstone portrayed Johnson as an out-of-touch toff and bigot.[193] In the election, Johnson received 43% and Livingstone 37% of first-preference votes; when second-preference votes were added, Johnson was victorious with 53% to Livingstone's 47%.[194][195] Johnson subsequently announced his intention to stand down as MP for Henley.[196][197] First term: 2008–2012 After Johnson became mayor, those in City Hall deemed too closely allied to Livingstone's administration had their employment terminated.[198] Johnson appointed Tim Parker as his deputy mayor, but after Parker began taking increasing control at City Hall, Johnson dismissed him.[199] Many in the Conservative Party initially distanced themselves from Johnson's administration, fearing it would be damaging for the 2010 general election.[200] Johnson gave a victory speech in City Hall after being elected as the Mayor of London During the campaign, Johnson had confided to Brian Paddick he was unsure how he would maintain his lifestyle on the mayoral salary of £140,000 a year.[201] He agreed to continue his Daily Telegraph column, thus earning a further £250,000 a year.[202] His team believed this would cause controversy and made him promise to donate 20% of his Daily Telegraph salary to a charitable cause. Johnson resented this, and ultimately did not pay the full 20%.[203] Controversy erupted when on the BBC's HARDtalk he referred to the £250,000 salary as "chicken feed"; this was at the time approximately 10 times the average yearly wage for a British worker.[204][205][206] Johnson at the opening of NASDAQ in 2009 During his first administration, Johnson was embroiled in several personal scandals. After moving to a new house in Islington, he built a shed without obtaining planning permission; after neighbours complained, he dismantled it.[207] The press also accused him of having an affair with Helen Macintyre and of fathering her child, allegations that he did not deny.[208][209][210][211] Johnson was accused of warning Damian Green that police were planning to arrest him; Johnson denied the claims.[212] He was accused of cronyism,[213] in particular for appointing Veronica Wadley as the chair of London's Arts Council.[214][215][216] In the parliamentary expenses scandal, he was accused of excessive expenses claims for taxis.[217] Johnson remained a popular figure in London with a strong celebrity status in the city.[218] Policies The New Routemaster bus introduced by Johnson's administration Johnson made no major changes to the mayoral system of the previous administration.[219] However, he did reverse several other measures implemented by Livingstone: ending the city's oil deal with Venezuela, abolishing The Londoner newsletter, and scrapping the half-yearly inspections of black cabs, which was reinstated three years later.[220] Abolishing the western wing of the congestion charging zone,[221] he cancelled plans to increase the congestion charge for four-wheel-drive vehicles.[222] He was subsequently accused of failing to publish an independent report on air pollution commissioned by the Greater London Authority, which revealed the city breached legal limits on nitrogen dioxide levels.[223][224] Johnson retained Livingstone projects such as Crossrail and the 2012 Olympic Games, but was accused of trying to take credit for them.[225] He introduced a public bicycle scheme that had been mooted by Livingstone's administration; colloquially known as "Boris Bikes", the part privately financed system was a significant financial loss but proved popular.[226][227] Despite Johnson's support of cycling, and his much-publicised identity as a cyclist, some cycling groups argued he had failed to make the city's roads safer for cyclists.[228] As per his election pledge, he commissioned the development of the New Routemaster buses for central London.[229] He also ordered the construction of a cable car system that crossed the River Thames between the Greenwich Peninsula and the Royal Docks.[230] Johnson implemented Livingstone's idea of a public bicycle system; the result was dubbed the "Boris Bike". Johnson's first policy initiative was a ban on drinking alcohol on public transport.[231][232] He announced plans to extend pay-as-you-go Oyster cards to national rail services in London.[233] A pledge in Johnson's manifesto was to retain Tube ticket offices, in opposition to Livingstone's proposal to close up to 40.[234] On 2 July 2008, the Mayor's office announced the closure plan was to be abandoned.[235] On 21 November 2013, Transport for London announced that all London Underground ticket offices would close by 2015.[236] In financing these projects, Johnson's administration borrowed £100 million,[237] while public transport fares were increased by 50%.[238] During his first term, Johnson was perceived as having moved leftward on certain issues, supporting the London Living Wage and endorsing an amnesty for illegal migrants.[239] He tried placating critics who had deemed him a bigot by appearing at London's gay pride parade and praising ethnic minority newspapers.[240] Johnson broke from the traditional protocol of those in public office not publicly commenting on other nations' elections by endorsing Barack Obama for the 2008 United States presidential election.[241][242] Relations with the police, finance, and the media Johnson's response to the 2011 London riots was criticised Johnson appointed himself chair of the Metropolitan Police Authority (MPA), and in October 2008 successfully pushed for the resignation of Metropolitan Police Commissioner Ian Blair, after Blair was criticised for allegedly handing contracts to friends and for his handling of the death of Jean Charles de Menezes.[243][244][245] This earned Johnson respect among Conservatives, who interpreted it as his first act of strength.[246] Johnson resigned as chairman of the MPA in January 2010,[239] but throughout his mayoralty was highly supportive of the Metropolitan Police, particularly during the controversy surrounding the death of Ian Tomlinson.[247] Overall crime in London fell during his administration, but his claim that serious youth crime had decreased proved to be false, and he acknowledged the error.[248][249] He was criticised for his response to the 2011 London riots.[250] Johnson lights the flame at the 2010 London Youth Games opening ceremony Johnson championed London's financial sector and denounced what he saw as "banker bashing" following the financial crisis of 2007–08,[251] condemning the anti-capitalist Occupy London movement that appeared in 2011.[252] He collected donations from the city's wealthy for a charitable enterprise, the Mayor's Fund, which he had established to aid disadvantaged youths. It initially announced the fund would raise £100 million, but by 2010 it had only earnt £1.5 million.[253] He also maintained extensive personal contacts throughout the British media,[254] which resulted in widespread favourable press coverage of his administration.[254] In turn he remained largely supportive of his friends in the media, including Rupert Murdoch, during the News International phone hacking scandal.[255] The formation of the Forensic Audit Panel was announced on 8 May 2008. The panel was tasked with monitoring and investigating financial management at the London Development Agency and the Greater London Authority.[256] Johnson's announcement was criticised by Labour for the perceived politicisation of this nominally independent panel.[257] The head of the panel, Patience Wheatcroft, was married to a Conservative councillor[258] and three of the four remaining panel members also had close links to the Conservatives.[259][260] Re-election campaign Up for re-election in 2012, Johnson again hired Crosby to orchestrate his campaign.[261] Before the election, Johnson published Johnson's Life of London, a work of popular history that historian A. N. Wilson characterised as a "coded plea" for votes.[262] Polls suggested that while Livingstone's approach to transport was preferred, voters in London placed greater trust in Johnson on crime and the economy.[263] Johnson's campaign emphasised the accusation that Livingstone was guilty of tax evasion, for which Livingstone called Johnson a "bare-faced liar".[264] Political scientist Andrew Crines believed that Livingstone's campaign focused on criticising Johnson rather than presenting an alternate and progressive vision of London's future.[265] Johnson was re-elected.[266] Second term: 2012–2016 Johnson at the 2012 Summer Olympics After a successful bid under Livingstone in 2005, London hosted the 2012 Summer Olympics, with Johnson as board co-chair.[267] He improved transportation around London by making more tickets available and adding buses around the capital when thousands of spectators were temporary visitors.[268][269] Johnson was accused of covering up pollution ahead of the games by deploying dust suppressants to remove air particulates near monitoring stations.[223] In November 2013, Johnson announced major changes to the operation of the London Underground, including the extension of operating hours. All staffed ticket offices were replaced with automated ticketing systems.[270][271] Johnson was close friends with American entrepreneur[272] and model Jennifer Arcuri, with The Sunday Times describing him as a regular visitor to her flat,[273] and implying they were in a sexual relationship.[274] Arcuri and her company, Innotech, were awarded substantial government grants, and Johnson intervened to allow her onto three trade mission trips.[275] The Sunday Times said in September 2019 that Johnson failed to declare his personal relationship as a conflict of interest.[276] The Greater London Authority referred the matter to the Independent Office for Police Conduct (IOPC) "so it can assess whether or not it is necessary to investigate the former mayor of London for the criminal offence of misconduct in public office", as the Mayor is also London's police and crime commissioner.[277] On 9 November 2019 it was revealed that the IOPC had decided to publish its report after the general election on 12 December.[278] The IOPC eventually issued its report in May 2020, concluding that, although there was no basis for any criminal charge, there was evidence that the close relationship between Johnson and Arcuri had influenced decisions, that Johnson should have declared an interest, and that his failure to do this could have breached the London Assembly's code of conduct.[279] In 2015, Johnson criticised then-presidential candidate Donald Trump's false comments that there were no-go zones in London inaccessible for non-Muslims. Johnson said Trump was "betraying a quite stupefying ignorance that makes him frankly unfit to hold the office of President of the United States",[280] becoming the first senior politician in the UK to declare Trump unfit for office, but rejecting calls for him to be banned from the country.[281] In 2016, he said he was "genuinely worried that [Trump] could become president", telling ITV's Tom Bradby that being mistaken for Trump in New York was "one of the worst moments" of his life.[282] Johnson did not run for a third mayoral and stepped down on 5 May 2016 following the election. A YouGov poll commissioned at the end of Johnson's term revealed that 52% of Londoners believed he did a "good job" while 29% believed he did a "bad job".[283] Return to Parliament Johnson initially said that he would not return to the House of Commons while mayor.[218] After much media speculation, in August 2014 he sought selection as the Conservative candidate for the safe seat of Uxbridge and South Ruislip at the 2015 general election.[284][285][286] In the 2015 general election, Johnson was elected. There was speculation that he had returned to Parliament because he wanted to replace Cameron as Conservative leader and prime minister.[287] Brexit campaign: 2015–2016 Main article: Vote Leave In February 2016, Johnson endorsed Vote Leave in the "Out" campaign for the 2016 European Union membership referendum.[288] Following this announcement, which was interpreted by financial markets as making Brexit more probable, the pound sterling slumped by nearly 2% against the US dollar, reaching its lowest level since March 2009.[289] In April 2016, in response to a comment by President Barack Obama that Britain should remain in the European Union, Johnson wrote an "ancestral dislike" of Britain owing to his "part-Kenyan" background may have shaped Obama's views.[290] Several politicians condemned his comments as racist and unacceptable.[291][292][293] Conversely, former Conservative Party leader Iain Duncan Smith and UK Independence Party (UKIP) leader Nigel Farage defended them.[291][294] Johnson supported Vote Leave's statement that the government was committed to Turkish accession to the EU. Vote Leave was accused of implying that 80 million Turks would come to the UK if it stayed in the EU. When interviewed in January 2019, he said he had not mentioned Turkey during the campaign.[295][296] On 22 June 2016, Johnson declared 23 June could be "Britain's independence day" in a televised debate.[297] Following the victory of the "Leave" campaign, Cameron resigned. Johnson was widely regarded as the front-runner to succeed him.[298][299] Johnson announced he would not stand in the Conservative leadership election.[300] Shortly before this, Michael Gove, hitherto a Johnson ally, concluded that Johnson "cannot provide the leadership or build the team for the task ahead".[301][302] The Daily Telegraph called Gove's comments "the most spectacular political assassination in a generation".[303] Johnson endorsed Andrea Leadsom's candidature, but she dropped out, leaving Theresa May to be elected uncontested.[304] Foreign Secretary: 2016–2018 Main article: Boris Johnson's tenure as Foreign Secretary Official portrait of Johnson as Foreign Secretary May appointed Johnson foreign secretary in July 2016.[305] Analysts saw the appointment as a tactic to weaken Johnson politically: the new positions of "Brexit secretary" and international trade secretary left the foreign secretary as a figurehead.[305][306] Johnson's appointment ensured he would often be out of the country and unable to mobilise backbenchers against her, while forcing him to take responsibility for problems caused by withdrawing from the EU.[307][308] Some journalists and foreign politicians criticised Johnson's appointment because of his controversial statements about other countries.[309][310][311] His tenure attracted criticism from diplomats and foreign policy experts.[312][313] A number of diplomats, FCO staff and foreign ministers who worked with Johnson compared his leadership unfavourably to previous foreign secretaries for his perceived lack of conviction or substantive positions on foreign policy issues.[312][313] A senior official in Obama's government suggested Johnson's appointment would push the US further towards Germany at the expense of the Special Relationship with the UK.[314] On one occasion Egyptian president Abdel Fattah el-Sisi walked out of a meeting with Johnson after a meeting did not "get beyond the pleasantries".[312] Johnson with US president Donald Trump in 2017 UNGA Johnson's visit to Turkey in September 2016 was somewhat tense because he had won Douglas Murray's offensive poetry competition about the President of Turkey, Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, four months earlier.[315] When questioned by a journalist whether he would apologise for the poem, Johnson dismissed the matter as "trivia".[316] Johnson pledged to help Turkey join the EU and expressed support for Erdogan's government.[317] Johnson described the Gülen movement as a "cult" and supported Turkey's post-coup purges.[318] Johnson supported the Saudi Arabian–led intervention in Yemen and refused to block UK arms sales to Saudi Arabia.[319][320] In September 2016, human rights groups accused him of blocking the UN inquiry into Saudi war crimes in Yemen.[321] Given the UK-Saudi alliance, in December 2016, he attracted attention for commenting the Saudis were akin to the Iranians in "puppeteering and playing proxy wars".[322][323][324] In November 2017, Johnson told the Foreign Affairs Select Committee that Nazanin Zaghari-Ratcliffe – a British-Iranian citizen imprisoned in Iran after being arrested for training citizen journalists and bloggers in a BBC World Service Trust project – had been "simply teaching people journalism". Facing criticism, Johnson stated he had been misquoted and that nothing he said had justified Zaghari-Ratcliffe's sentence.[325][326] In May 2018, Johnson backed[327][328] the Iran nuclear deal framework, despite Donald Trump's withdrawal.[329] Johnson visiting the British Virgin Islands after Hurricane Irma In April 2017, Johnson said that Gibraltar's sovereignty was "not going to change" after Brexit.[330] Johnson promised while in Northern Ireland that Brexit would leave the Irish border "absolutely unchanged".[331] Johnson visited Anguilla and Tortola in September 2017 to confirm the United Kingdom's commitment to helping restore British territories devastated by Hurricane Irma.[332] In September 2017, he was criticised for reciting lines from Rudyard Kipling's poem Mandalay while visiting a Myanmar temple; the British ambassador, who was with him, suggested it was "not appropriate".[333][334][335] In October 2017, he faced criticism for stating the Libyan city of Sirte could become an economic success like Dubai: "all they have to do is clear the dead bodies away".[336][337] Initially favouring a less hostile approach to Russia,[338] Johnson soon backed a more aggressive policy.[339][340] Following the March 2018 poisoning of Sergei and Yulia Skripal in Salisbury, an act which the UK government blamed on Russia,[341][342] Johnson compared Vladimir Putin's hosting of the World Cup in Russia to Adolf Hitler's hosting of the Olympic Games in Berlin in 1936.[343] Russia's Foreign Ministry denounced Johnson's "unacceptable and unworthy" parallel towards Russia, a "nation that lost millions of lives in fighting Nazism".[344] Johnson described the Nord Stream 2 gas pipeline from Russia to Germany as "divisive" and a "threat" that left Europe dependent on a "malign Russia" for its energy supplies.[345] Johnson condemned the persecution of Rohingya Muslims in Myanmar,[346] comparing the situation with the displacement of Palestinians in 1948.[347] Johnson supported the Turkish invasion of northern Syria aimed at ousting the Syrian Kurds from Afrin.[348] In June 2018, Johnson accused the UNHRC of focusing disproportionately on the Israeli–Palestinian conflict and Israel's occupation of the Palestinian territories.[349] Johnson meeting with Iranian foreign minister Mohammad Javad Zarif in Tehran in December 2017 In a September 2017 op-ed, Johnson reiterated the UK would regain control of £350m a week after Brexit, suggesting it go to the National Health Service (NHS).[350] Cabinet colleagues subsequently criticised him for reviving the assertion.[351][352] Following the 2017 general election, Johnson denied media reports he intended to challenge May's leadership.[353] In a February 2018 letter to May, Johnson suggested that Northern Ireland may have to accept border controls after Brexit and that it would not seriously affect trade, having initially said a hard border would be unthinkable.[354] In June, he was reported as having said "f*ck business" when asked about corporate concerns regarding a 'hard' Brexit.[355][356][357][358] Johnson with former prime minister Gordon Brown in May 2018 Secret recordings obtained by BuzzFeed News in June 2018 revealed Johnson's dissatisfaction with Prime Minister Theresa May's negotiating style, accusing her of being too collaborative with the European Union in Brexit negotiations. Comparing May's approach to that of the US president Donald Trump – who at the time was engaged in a combative trade war with the EU because it raised tariffs on metal – Johnson said: "Imagine Trump doing Brexit. He'd go in b**dy hard ... There'd be all sorts of breakdowns, all sorts of chaos. Everyone would think he'd gone mad. But actually you might get somewhere." He accused individuals of scaremongering over a Brexit "meltdown", saying "No panic. Pro bono publico, no bl**y panic. It's going to be all right in the end."[359] In April 2018, Johnson travelled to Italy to attend a party at the Palazzo Terranova, owned by the former KGB agent Alexander Lebedev and hosted by his son Evgeny. He travelled without security protection or other officials,[360] and did not document the trip, which led to accusations of Johnson having misled parliament.[361] In June 2023, it was revealed that Lord Simon McDonald, the most senior civil servant of his department, was not aware of the trip. Johnson stated that "no government business was discussed" at the event as far as he was aware.[362][363] Lebedev's villa was monitored by the Italian secret service at the time, who, according to a Channel 4 documentary, suspected it to be used for espionage activities.[364] Johnson granted a peerage to Evgeny in 2020, against the advice of the MI6, and met with criticism over potential security concerns.[365][366][367] In July 2018, three days after the cabinet had its meeting to agree on a Brexit strategy,[368] Johnson, along with Brexit secretary David Davis,[369] resigned his post.[370] Return to the backbenches: 2018–2019 Johnson returned to the role of a backbench MP. In July, he delivered a resignation speech, stating "it is not too late to save Brexit".[371] In January 2019, Johnson came under criticism for remarks he had made during the 2016 Leave campaign regarding the prospect of Turkish accession to the European Union; he denied making such remarks.[372] In March 2019, he was criticized for saying that expenditure on investigating historic allegations of child abuse was money "spaffed up the wall".[373][374] Journalism In July 2018, Johnson signed a 12‑month contract to write articles for the Telegraph Media Group.[375] The Advisory Committee on Business Appointments (ACOBA) reported that this was a breach of the Ministerial Code.[375][376] Johnson was ordered to apologise for failing to declare £50,000 of earnings. The Parliamentary Commissioner for Standards found the errors were not inadvertent, and that Johnson had failed on nine occasions to make declarations within the rules.[377] In September 2018, Johnson wrote: "We have opened ourselves to perpetual political blackmail. We have wrapped a suicide vest around the British constitution – and handed the detonator to Michel Barnier." Senior Tories heavily criticised him, with Alan Duncan of the Foreign Office vowing to ensure the comments marked "the political end of Boris Johnson".[378][379] In April 2019, the Independent Press Standards Organisation ruled that a claim in a 6 January 2019 article in The Daily Telegraph, "The British people won't be scared into backing a woeful Brexit deal nobody voted for", authored by Johnson,[380] that a no-deal Brexit was "by some margin preferred by the British public" was false, and "represented a failure to take care over the accuracy of the article in breach of Clause 1 (i)" of its guidelines, and required that a correction be published.[381] 2019 Conservative Party leadership election Main article: 2019 Conservative Party leadership election The logo used by Johnson's leadership campaign in 2019 On 12 June 2019, Johnson launched his campaign for the Conservative Party leadership election, saying, "we must leave the EU on 31 October."[382] On the campaign trail, Johnson warned of "catastrophic consequences for voter trust in politics" if the government pushed the EU for further delays. He advocated removing the backstop from any Brexit deal. On 25 and 26 August, he announced plans to retain £7 or £9 billion of the £39 billion divorce payment the UK is due to transfer to the EU upon withdrawal.[383][384] Johnson initially pledged to cut income tax for earners of more than £50,000 but backed away from this plan in June 2019 after coming under criticism in a televised BBC debate.[385] Johnson was elected leader with 92,153 votes (66%) to Hunt's 46,656 (34%).[386] Premiership (2019–2022) Main article: Premiership of Boris Johnson First term (July–December 2019) Wikisource has original text related to this article: Boris Johnson: First Speech as Prime Minister On 24 July 2019, the day following Johnson's election as Conservative Party leader, Queen Elizabeth II accepted Theresa May's resignation and appointed Johnson as prime minister. This made Johnson the first prime minister to be born outside British territories.[387] Johnson appointed Dominic Cummings as his senior advisor.[388] Brexit policy Johnson discussing Brexit with French president Emmanuel Macron in Paris Johnson signing the Brexit Withdrawal Agreement In his first speech as PM, Johnson said that the United Kingdom would leave the European Union on 31 October 2019 with or without a deal, and promised to remove the Irish backstop from the withdrawal agreement.[389][390] Johnson declared his intention to re-open negotiations, but talks did not immediately resume as the EU refused to accept Johnson's condition that the backstop be removed.[391] On 28 August 2019, UK and EU negotiators agreed to resume regular meetings.[392] Also on 28 August 2019, Johnson declared he had asked the Queen to prorogue Parliament from 10 September, reducing the time in which Parliament could block a no-deal Brexit and causing a political controversy.[393] The Queen at Privy Council approved prorogation later the same day, and it began on 10 September, scheduled to last until 14 October.[394] Some suggested[395] that this prorogation amounted to a self-coup, and on 31 August 2019, protests occurred throughout the United Kingdom.[396][397] As of 2 September 2019, three separate court cases challenging Johnson's action were in progress or scheduled to take place,[398] and on 11 September, three Scottish judges ruled the prorogation of the UK Parliament to be unlawful.[399][400] On 12 September, Johnson denied lying to the Queen over suspension of the Parliament, while a Belfast Court rejected claims that his Brexit plans will have a negative impact on Northern Ireland's peace policy.[401] On 24 September, the Supreme Court ruled unanimously that Johnson's advice to prorogue Parliament was unlawful, and therefore the prorogation was rendered null.[402][403] When Parliament resumed on 3 September 2019, Johnson indicated he would call a general election under the Fixed-term Parliaments Act after opposition and rebel Conservative MPs successfully voted against the government to take control of the order of business to prevent a no-deal exit.[404] Despite government opposition, the Benn Act, a bill to block a no-deal exit, passed the Commons on 4 September 2019, causing Johnson to propose a general election on 15 October.[405] His motion was unsuccessful as it failed to command the support of two-thirds of the House.[406] In October 2019, following bilateral talks between Johnson and Taoiseach Leo Varadkar,[407] the UK and EU agreed to a revised deal, which replaced the backstop with a new Northern Ireland Protocol.[408] First Cabinet Main article: First Johnson ministry Johnson holding his first cabinet meeting at 10 Downing Street, 25 July 2019 Johnson appointed his Cabinet on 24 July 2019,[409] dismissing 11 senior ministers and accepting the resignation of six others.[410][411] The mass dismissal was the most extensive postwar Cabinet reorganisation without a change in the ruling party.[412][413] Among other appointments, Johnson made Dominic Raab the First Secretary of State and foreign secretary and appointed Sajid Javid and Priti Patel as the Chancellor of the Exchequer and Home Secretary, respectively. Loss of working majority On 3 September 2019, Phillip Lee crossed the floor to the Liberal Democrats following a disagreement with Johnson's Brexit policy. This left the government without a working majority in the House of Commons.[414] Later that day, 21 Conservative MPs had the party whip withdrawn for defying party orders and supporting an opposition motion.[415] (The whip was restored to 10 former Conservative ministers on 29 October.[416]) Johnson giving a speech in December 2019 after the 2019 general election On 5 September 2019, Johnson's brother Jo Johnson resigned from the government and announced that he would step down as MP, describing his position as "torn between family and national interest".[417] Two days later, Amber Rudd resigned as Secretary of State for Work and Pensions and from the Conservative Party, describing the withdrawal of the party whip as an "assault on decency and democracy".[418] 2019 general election Main article: 2019 United Kingdom general election In October 2019, Parliament was dissolved, and an election called for 12 December. The election resulted in the Conservative Party winning 43.6% of the vote and a parliamentary landslide majority of 80 seats – its biggest since 1987 under Margaret Thatcher.[419] A key slogan used in the Conservative campaign was their promise to "Get Brexit Done".[420] Second term (December 2019 – September 2022) Second Cabinet Main articles: Second Johnson ministry, 2020 British cabinet reshuffle, and 2021 British cabinet reshuffle Johnson appointed Rishi Sunak (right) as Chancellor of the Exchequer in the February 2020 cabinet reshuffle Johnson reshuffled his cabinet in February 2020.[421] Five Cabinet ministers were sacked, including the Northern Ireland secretary Julian Smith, a decision that was criticised by several politicians and commentators following his success in restoring the Northern Ireland Executive devolved government.[422] Chancellor of the Exchequer Sajid Javid resigned from the Cabinet and was replaced by Rishi Sunak; Javid later returned to Johnson's Cabinet as Secretary of State for Health and Social Care in June 2021 following the resignation of Matt Hancock.[423] Johnson reshuffled his cabinet again in September 2021. Changes included the dismissal of Education Secretary Gavin Williamson who had received significant criticism for his handling of disruption to education during the COVID-19 pandemic. Dominic Raab was moved from foreign secretary to deputy prime minister and justice secretary. Raab was replaced as foreign secretary by Liz Truss.[424][425] COVID-19 pandemic Main articles: British government response to the COVID-19 pandemic and COVID-19 vaccination programme in the United Kingdom See also: COVID-19 contracts in the United Kingdom and COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom Johnson delivering a press conference on COVID-19, 31 July 2020 The COVID-19 pandemic emerged as a serious crisis within the first few months of Johnson's second term.[426] Johnson's non-attendance of five COBR briefings during the early months and the failure of the UK government to prepare for and control the outbreak has been criticised.[427][428][429] The UK was among the last major[clarification needed] European states to close schools, ban public events and order a lockdown.[430][431] This response is thought by some scientists to have contributed to the UK's high death toll from COVID-19, which as of January 2021 was among the highest in the world.[432][needs update] Reuters reported that scientists were critical of Johnson both for acting too slowly to stop the spread of COVID-19 and for mishandling the government's response;[433] Politico quoted Chief Medical Officer Chris Whitty as saying that an earlier initial lockdown would have significantly lowered the death toll.[434] The BMJ published several editorials critical of the policies adopted during the country's public health response.[435][436] Johnson's public communication over the virus and the UK's test and trace system were also criticised.[433][437][438] On 3 March 2020, Johnson claimed to have shaken hands with COVID-19 patients in hospital on the same day that SAGE had advised the government to warn the public not to shake hands and minimise physical contact,[439][440] though it was unclear whether the hospital he visited actually contained any coronavirus patients.[441] He continued to shake hands publicly in the following days.[442] On 23 March, a COVID-19 lockdown was imposed throughout the UK, except for a few limited purposes, backed up by new legal powers.[443] Johnson giving a speech in April 2020 after recovering from COVID-19 On 27 March, it was announced that Johnson had tested positive for COVID-19.[444] On 5 April, he was admitted to a hospital.[445] The next day, he was moved to the hospital's intensive care unit.[446][447] Johnson left intensive care on 9 April,[448] and left hospital three days later to recuperate at Chequers.[449] After a fortnight at Chequers, he returned to Downing Street on 26 April.[450] Johnson later said that he had been given emergency oxygen while in intensive care, and that doctors had made preparations in case he died.[451] A scandal in May 2020 involved Johnson's chief political advisor Dominic Cummings, who made a trip with his family to Durham during the March 2020 lockdown while experiencing COVID-19 symptoms. Both Cummings and Johnson rejected widespread calls that Cummings resign.[452][453][454] Johnson's defence of Cummings and his refusal to sack him caused a widespread backlash.[455] This resulted in a loss of confidence in the government and specifically its response to the pandemic, referred to as 'the Cummings effect' in The Lancet. Concerns were raised in the study that this could affect the public's compliance with pandemic restrictions.[456][457] The Johnson ministry was accused of cronyism in their assignment of contracts related to the pandemic response. Procurement of government contracts for key COVID-19 supplies became less transparent as a result of emergency measures bypassing the usual competitive tendering process.[458][9] In October 2020, Johnson conceded that the UK's test and trace system and its specially developed contact tracing app, which had been criticised for their cost and operational issues, had caused "frustrations".[433][459][460] Johnson hosts virtual G7 meeting in February 2021 Johnson reportedly resisted calls from SAGE and within the government to enact a second lockdown throughout September as COVID-19 infections rose.[461][462] In April 2021, Johnson denied allegations he had said he would rather "let the bodies pile high in their thousands" on 30 October 2020.[463][464][465] The government enacted a second national lockdown on 31 October.[466] Throughout December 2020, COVID-19 cases across the UK rose significantly, straining emergency services and hospitals.[467][468] In response, the government enacted further restrictions to large parts of southern and eastern England and on 21 December shortened a planned household mixing period over Christmas.[469] Britain began its COVID-19 vaccination programme in December 2020.[470] Half of UK adults had received at least their first vaccine dose by 20 March 2021.[471] A third lockdown for the whole of England was introduced on 6 January 2021.[472] Record numbers of infections and daily deaths were recorded in the UK throughout January, and the government began exploring quarantine procedures on arrival.[473] Johnson said he was "deeply sorry" and "take[s] full responsibility" as the UK passed 100,000 deaths from COVID-19, the first European country to do so, on 26 January.[474] Johnson with US president Joe Biden at the G7 summit in Cornwall, 10 June 2021 In July 2021, Johnson announced that most generalised public health restrictions in England would be lifted and replaced by recommendations. This took place despite an increase in cases driven by the Delta variant.[475][476] In September 2021, Johnson was pictured in a cabinet meeting, with "at least 30 people crammed shoulder-to-shoulder", without anyone wearing masks and with all windows apparently closed, contradicting government advice.[477] Johnson was also photographed without a face mask during a visit to a hospital in November.[478] In December 2021, more stringent "Plan B" restrictions for England were put forward, a partial renewal of previous measures due to the increased incidence of the SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant. These proposals included face coverings to be required in more public settings, guidance to work from home wherever possible, and requirements of COVID-19 passports to enter certain venues.[479] The government experienced the largest rebellion of Conservative MPs during Johnson's premiership, in opposition to these measures.[480][481] Legislative agenda At the State Opening of Parliament on 11 May 2021, a range of proposed laws were announced, including the Dissolution and Calling of Parliament Bill, which would restore the royal prerogative to dissolve Parliament; a Higher Education (Freedom of Speech) Bill to combat deplatforming at universities;[482] an Online Safety Bill that would impose a statutory duty of care on online companies and empower Ofcom to block particular websites;[483] and an Animal Welfare (Sentience) Bill that would legally recognise animal sentience. Further laws would introduce mandatory voter identification at general elections, reform the national immigration system, and implement a levelling up policy to reduce imbalances between areas.[482] 2021 Downing Street refurbishment controversy Further information: 2021 Downing Street refurbishment controversy In April 2021, Cummings alleged that Johnson had arranged for donors to "secretly pay" for renovations on the private residence at 11 Downing Street.[484] On 27 April Johnson asked the Cabinet Secretary, Simon Case, to hold a review about the refurbishment.[485] On 28 April, the Electoral Commission announced it had opened a formal investigation.[486][487] On the same day Johnson said that he had not broken any laws over the refurbishment and had met the requirements he was obliged to meet.[488] During Prime Minister's Questions, the leader of the opposition, Keir Starmer, asked: "Who initially paid for the redecoration of his Downing Street flat?"; Johnson responded: "I paid for Downing Street's refurbishment personally."[489] On 28 May Lord Geidt published a report on the allegations which concluded that Johnson did not breach the Ministerial Code and that no conflict, or reasonably perceived conflict, of interest arose. However, Lord Geidt expressed that it was "unwise" for Johnson to have proceeded without "more rigorous regard for how this would be funded".[490][491] The Electoral Commission reported on 9 December that it found that the Conservative Party had failed to follow the law in not accurately reporting donations to the party from Lord Brownlow and imposed a £17,800 fine on the party.[492][493] The Herald said the commission's report outlined how, in March, all the money paid by Brownlow and his company had been reimbursed, as had the payments made by the Conservative Party and Cabinet Office.[493] Downing Street had said at the time that the full cost of the works had been met personally by the prime minister.[493] Owen Paterson controversy See also: Owen Paterson § Lobbying and breach of Commons advocacy rules, and United Kingdom parliamentary second jobs controversy In November 2021, Johnson backed a motion to block the suspension of Owen Paterson, a Conservative MP found to have abused his position by the independent standards commissioner after undertaking paid lobbying.[494] The motion called for the creation of a new Conservative-majority committee to examine reforms of the standards investigation process.[495] Many Conservative MPs refused to support the motion, and 13 defied a three-line whip to vote against it.[496] Following the announcement by opposition parties that they would boycott the new committee, and faced with a backlash in the media and from MPs of all parties, the government announced that a new vote would take place on whether Paterson should be suspended.[497] Paterson announced his resignation as an MP the same day.[498] A by-election in Paterson's former constituency of North Shropshire saw the Liberal Democrat candidate, Helen Morgan, overturn a Conservative majority of nearly 23,000,[499] the seventh largest swing in United Kingdom by-election history.[500] Partygate scandal Main article: Partygate Downing Street, where some of the gatherings took place[501] In December 2021, reports emerged that social gatherings of government and Conservative Party staff in Downing Street had taken place ahead of Christmas 2020 against COVID-19 regulations. Johnson denied these allegations.[502][503] Following a leaked video showing Downing Street staff joking about a "fictional party", at a press conference rehearsal recorded days after one alleged party took place, Johnson apologised for the contents of the video and suggested he had been misled but had now ordered an inquiry.[504][505] On 10 January 2022, ITV News reported that a planned party had taken place on 20 May 2020, during the first lockdown. ITV had obtained an email sent by principal private secretary Martin Reynolds to staff inviting them to "socially distanced drinks" in the garden of No. 10.[506] At the time, people outdoors were not allowed to meet more than one person from outside their household.[507] Two eyewitnesses later alleged that Johnson and Symonds attended, contradicting Johnson's insistence in December 2021 that there were "no parties".[508][506] On 12 January 2022, Johnson apologised to MPs in the Commons for "attending an event in the Downing Street garden during the first lockdown",[509][510] stating he believed it was "a work event".[511] He said that MPs should await the outcome of the independent inquiry, led by senior civil servant Sue Gray, which he said "will report as soon as possible".[512] There were calls across the House for Johnson to resign.[512][513] An image of Johnson at a social gathering, from Sue Gray's report into the partygate scandal. On 19 January, Bury South MP Christian Wakeford defected from the Conservative Party to the Labour Party.[514] Conservative former minister David Davis called for Johnson to resign, quoting Leo Amery calling on Neville Chamberlain to resign during the Norway Debate in 1940, and saying: "You have sat there too long for all the good you have done. In the name of God, go."[515][516][517] On 25 January, the Metropolitan Police's chief commander, Cressida D*ck, announced that they were commencing investigations into the Downing Street Parties.[518] An abbreviated version of the Sue Gray report into the controversy was released on 31 January, where Gray concluded there was a "failure of leadership" over the events that she had examined. The release of the full report was delayed pending the Metropolitan Police's investigation.[519] In April 2022, Johnson was issued a fixed penalty notice as police determined that he committed a criminal offence by breaching the COVID-19 lockdown regulations.[520][521] Johnson therefore became the first prime minister in British history to have been sanctioned for breaking the law while in office.[522] According to Downing Street insiders, Johnson was involved in instigating a party on the occasion of Lee Cain leaving Number 10. What had begun as press office drinks became a party after Johnson arrived, gave a speech and poured drinks for staff. Labour's deputy leader, Angela Rayner said, "If the latest reports are true, it would mean that not only did the prime minister attend parties, but he had a hand in instigating at least one of them. He has deliberately misled the British people at every turn. The prime minister has demeaned his office."[523][524][525][526] On 21 April, MPs voted to refer Johnson to the Parliamentary Privileges Committee to investigate whether he knowingly misled Parliament.[527] Steve Baker said Johnson's "marvellous contrition... only lasted as long as it took to get out of the headmaster's study".[528] Following the May 2022 local elections, many leading Conservatives in areas where the Conservatives had done badly blamed Johnson and calling on Johnson to resign.[529] On 6 June, Graham Brady announced that the threshold for a vote on Johnson's leadership had been passed; the vote was scheduled for later that same day.[530] On 3 March 2023, an interim report from the Commons Select Committee of Privileges said there was evidence that "strongly suggests" breaches of coronavirus regulations would have been "obvious" to Johnson.[531] The report also said "There is evidence that those who were advising Mr Johnson about what to say to the press and in the House were themselves struggling to contend that some gatherings were within the rules".[531] Johnson said none of the evidence showed he "knowingly" misled Parliament.[531] The report stated that the Commons may have been misled on multiple occasions and Johnson "did not correct the statements [at the] earliest opportunity".[531] The committee also stated that Johnson had "personal knowledge" over lockdown gatherings in No 10, which he could have disclosed.[531] Starmer slur controversy While speaking in the House of Commons on 31 January 2022, Johnson falsely blamed Starmer for the non-prosecution of serial sex offender Jimmy Savile when Starmer was Director of Public Prosecutions (DPP) in the Crown Prosecution Service (CPS). Starmer was DPP in the years immediately prior to Savile's death but there is no evidence he was involved in the decision to not have him prosecuted.[532] The claim linking the failure of the CPS to prosecute Savile to Starmer originated in 2018 on the right-wing Guido Fawkes blog.[533] Johnson received criticism for the comment and his policy adviser, Munira Mirza, resigned three days later, saying that Johnson had made "a scurrilous accusation".[534] Julian Smith, the former chief whip, and Simon Hoare were among Conservatives who called for Johnson to apologise. On 3 February, during an interview with Sky News, Johnson defended his comments, stating that in 2013, Starmer apologised because the CPS had not investigated Savile; however, Johnson then said: "I totally understand that he [Starmer] had nothing to do personally with those decisions".[535] Vote of confidence Main article: 2022 vote of confidence in the Conservative Party leadership of Boris Johnson In the week prior to and throughout the Platinum Jubilee of Elizabeth II in June 2022, it had been speculated that a vote of confidence in Johnson's leadership of the Conservative Party might soon occur.[536][537] On 6 June 2022, the Conservative Party announced that Johnson would face a vote of confidence in his leadership of the party, after at least 54 Conservative MPs wrote no-confidence letters to Sir Graham Brady, the chairman of the 1922 Committee. Johnson won the vote, with 211 in favour and 148 against.[538][539] The number of rebel MPs was larger than had been expected.[539] The result was described by Keir Starmer as the "beginning of the end" for Johnson's premiership.[540] June 2022 by-elections Following heavy Conservative defeats in the 23 June 2022 by-elections in Wakefield and Tiverton and Honiton, former party leader Michael Howard called for Johnson to resign, saying: "[Mr Johnson's] biggest asset has always been his ability to win votes but I'm afraid yesterday's results make it clear that he no longer has that ability."[541][542] Oliver Dowden, the Co-Chairman of the Conservative Party, resigned saying: "somebody must take responsibility".[543] Johnson announced that he had no intention of changing or resigning; senior Conservatives accused him of increasingly "delusional" behaviour.[544][545] On 26 June 2022 Johnson said: "At the moment I'm thinking actively about the third term and what could happen then, but I will review that when I get to it." He also claimed that he intended to stay as prime minister until the mid-2030s, although Number 10 later said that he had been joking.[546] Pincher scandal Main article: Chris Pincher scandal Government Deputy Chief Whip Chris Pincher resigned on 30 June 2022, saying he had "drunk far too much" the night before at the Carlton Club in St James's, London, and having "embarrassed myself and other people".[547] It was later alleged that he sexually assaulted two men,[548] and he was suspended as an MP.[549] On 3 July 2022 six new allegations against Pincher emerged, involving behaviour over a decade.[550] Johnson allegedly referred to Pincher as "handsy" and Cummings said Johnson joked about him being "Pincher by name, pincher by nature" in 2020, leading to calls for Johnson to explain how much he knew about Pincher's behaviour.[551] Ministers initially said that Johnson was unaware of any specific complaints against Pincher when he was appointed as deputy chief whip. The BBC then reported, however, that an official complaint and subsequent investigation into Pincher, while he was at the Foreign Office (July 2019 to February 2020), had confirmed his misconduct, and that Johnson had been made aware at that time.[552] Sir Simon McDonald, former Permanent Under-Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, later said that the prime minister had been briefed "in person" about Pincher.[553][554] Mass resignations Main article: July 2022 United Kingdom government crisis On 5 July 2022, Sunak and Javid resigned within minutes of each other,[555] followed over the next 24 hours by 11 other ministers, as well as Conservative MPs from parliamentary private secretary and other Government positions;[556] other backbenchers also withdrew their support for Johnson. Many of the MPs stated that the Pincher affair had led them to change their minds on the suitability of Johnson to be prime minister.[557] It was reported on 6 July that Johnson could face another confidence vote, with members of the 1922 Committee considering changing the rules as soon as that evening to allow this to happen.[558] By 6 July, there had been a total of 31 resignations.[559] As of May 2022, the government comprised 122 ministers.[560] Announcement of resignation Johnson announcing his pending resignation as Leader of the Conservative Party By the morning of 7 July, the newly installed Chancellor of the Exchequer, Nadhim Zahawi, publicly stated his belief that Johnson should resign. Within hours, the BBC and other media reported Johnson's intention to resign. Johnson announced his resignation at 12.30 pm.[561][562][563] Upon reports of his resignation, the pound sterling temporarily strengthened in value, and UK stocks rose.[564] He remained as prime minister until September, while the Conservative Party chose a new leader.[565] On 5 September 2022, it was announced that Liz Truss had won the Conservative leadership election. She became prime minister the next day.[566][567] During his farewell speech outside 10 Downing Street on 6 September 2022 Johnson referred to the Roman statesman Cincinnatus. Some commentators noted that, while, as Johnson said, Cincinnatus returned to his plough, he was also later recalled to power.[568] Environmental policies In November 2020, Johnson announced a 10-point plan for a "green industrial revolution", to include ending the sale of petrol and diesel cars and vans by 2030,[d] quadrupling the amount of offshore wind power capacity within a decade, funding emissions-cutting proposals, and spurning a proposed green post-COVID-19 recovery.[570] In 2021, the Johnson government announced plans to cut carbon emissions by 78% by 2035.[571] Johnson announced that the UK would join the Global Methane Pledge to cut methane emissions by 30% by 2030 at the COP26 summit, which the UK hosted.[572][573] Before the summit, representatives of Greenpeace and Friends of the Earth criticised Johnson's comments on plans to introduce "enforceable limits" on carbon emissions for other countries, which they accused of being unsubstantive,[574] and his government faced criticism from environmental groups for cutting taxes on domestic air travel, given the environmental impact of aviation.[575] In April 2022, Johnson announced that eight more nuclear reactors would be built on existing nuclear power plant sites and called for an expansion in wind energy.[576] Under these plans, up to 95% of the UK's electricity could come from low-carbon power sources by 2030.[577] Foreign policy Further information: List of international prime ministerial trips made by Boris Johnson Johnson with US president Donald Trump at the G7 summit in Biarritz, 26 August 2019 Johnson supported the European Union–Mercosur Free Trade Agreement,[578] which would form one of the world's largest free trade areas.[579] Johnson's government placed importance on the "Special Relationship" with the United States.[580][581] In 2022, his government introduced an asylum deal whereby people entering the UK illegally would be sent to Rwanda.[582] Johnson and Russian president Vladimir Putin at the Berlin Conference on Libya, 19 January 2020 Johnson with Polish troops and Poland's PM Mateusz Morawiecki in Warsaw, 10 February 2022 Hong Kong and China Johnson said in July 2019 that his government would be very "pro-China" in an interview with the Hong Kong broadcaster Phoenix TV. He voiced support for Chinese president Xi Jinping's infrastructure investment effort, the Belt and Road Initiative, and promised to keep the United Kingdom "the most open economy in Europe" for Chinese investment.[583] In June 2020, Johnson announced that if China were to continue pursuing the Hong Kong national security law, the UK would offer 350,000 Hong Kong residents who are British National (Overseas) passport holders, and 2.6 million other eligible individuals, the chance to move to the UK.[584] China accused the UK of interfering in its internal affairs.[585] Johnson declined to describe the Chinese government's treatment of the Uyghur people as "genocide", despite use of the term by the United States.[586] Johnson's government argued that genocide should be decided by the International Criminal Court.[587] Nevertheless, he called what is happening to the Uyghurs in Xinjiang as "utterly abhorrent".[586] The UK joined the AUKUS defence pact with the United States and Australia in September 2021. The pact was denounced by China[588] and caused a French backlash, as it usurped existing plans for Australia to procure French submarines.[589] Afghanistan On 8 July 2021, the day after saying he was "apprehensive" about the future of Afghanistan following what was then the impending withdrawal of US troops, while announcing the near completion of British troop withdrawal from Afghanistan, Johnson expressed the view that there was "no military path to victory for the Taliban".[590][591] Following the fall of Kabul to the Taliban, he blamed the United States for the crisis,[592][593] saying that NATO alliance members "could not continue this US-led mission, a mission conceived and executed in support of America, without American logistics, without US air power and without American might".[594] UK–EU trade negotiation Main articles: Trade deal negotiation between the UK and EU and EU–UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement Following the formal withdrawal from the European Union in January 2020, Johnson's government entered trade negotiations with the EU.[595] Fisheries was a major topic of the negotiations.[595][596] On 16 October 2020 Johnson said that the UK "must get ready" for no trade deal with the EU.[597] It was announced on 24 December 2020[598] that the EU–UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement had been reached; it came into force formally on 1 May. A fisheries dispute between the UK and France occurred shortly afterwards. Introduction of new UK border checks were delayed until 2022 to minimise the disruption caused by the COVID-19 pandemic.[595] In May 2022, Johnson readied a draft that would unilaterally change parts of the Northern Ireland Protocol, citing issues with medical supplies and cuts in VAT. One of the thornier points of contention involves safety regulations for food and plants, where the British government is opposed to a closer alignment with existing EU regulations. The EU rebuffed the idea of changing the text of the treaty to accommodate the British. A unilateral override by the UK would be tantamount to a breach of the agreement. As Johnson sought a more conciliatory tone, sources within the government began to stress that the draft is designed to be an "insurance policy" and would take years to become law.[599] Russia and Ukraine Johnson walks on a street of war-hit Kyiv along with President of Ukraine Volodymyr Zelenskyy on 10 April 2022 In November 2021, Johnson warned that the European Union faces "a choice" between "sticking up for Ukraine" and approving the Nord Stream 2 natural gas pipeline from Russia to Europe.[600] During the 2021–2022 Russo-Ukrainian crisis, Johnson's government warned the Russian Government not to invade Donbas.[601][602][603] Johnson and Vladimir Putin agreed in a phone call to work towards a "peaceful resolution".[604] On 1 February 2022, Johnson arrived in Kyiv on a diplomatic visit.[605] He called the presence of the Russian Armed Forces near the Russia–Ukraine border "the biggest security crisis that Europe has faced for decades".[606] The Kremlin denied that it wanted to attack Ukraine.[606] On 20 February 2022, Johnson warned that Russia is planning the "biggest war in Europe since 1945" as Putin intends to invade and encircle Kyiv.[607] On 21 February 2022, Johnson condemned Russia's diplomatic recognition of two self-proclaimed republics in Donbas.[608] Johnson condemned the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, and ensured the UK joined in international sanctions on Russian banks and oligarchs.[609] He later announced the UK would phase out Russian oil by the end of 2022.[610] On 9 April 2022, Johnson travelled to Kyiv and met the President of Ukraine, Volodymyr Zelenskyy.[611] On 16 April 2022, Russia's Ministry for Foreign Affairs banned Johnson and a number of senior British politicians from visiting Russia, saying that Britain aimed to isolate Russia politically and supply "the Kyiv regime with lethal weapons and coordinating similar efforts on the part of NATO".[612] Within Ukraine, Johnson is praised by many as a supporter of anti-Russian sanctions and military aid for Ukraine.[613] On 3 May, Johnson virtually addressed the Ukrainian Parliament, becoming the first world leader to speak in Ukraine since the invasion. He pledged an extra £300m in military aid to Ukraine, praised Ukraine's resistance to Russia as its "finest hour" and said that the West had been "too slow to grasp what was actually happening" prior to Russia's invasion.[614][615] In July 2022, Johnson warned that it would be a mistake to cease fire and freeze the conflict.[616] In August 2022, Johnson blamed Vladimir Putin for the emerging global energy crisis.[617] Post-premiership (2022–present) Johnson with U.S. Representative John Rose in 2023 After stepping down, Johnson reverted to being a backbench MP.[618][619] Following the death of Queen Elizabeth II, Johnson took part in Charles III's Accession Council.[620][621][622] After Liz Truss announced her resignation as Conservative Party leader on 20 October 2022, Johnson received more than the 100 MPs' nominations required to stand in the leadership election,[623] but soon announced that he would not stand.[624][625][626] In May 2023, Johnson was referred to the police by the Cabinet Office regarding previously unknown potential breaches of COVID regulations between June 2020 and May 2021.[627] to which Johnson's office issued a statement criticising the "unfounded suggestions" which "has all the hallmarks of yet another politically motivated stitch-up".[627] Johnson with students and lecturers of Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv, Ukraine, 22 January 2023 On 9 June 2023, the publication of his 2022 Prime Minister's Resignation Honours led to a public feud with Rishi Sunak.[628][629] Johnson supporter Nadine Dorries announced that she was resigning as an MP due to not being included as a peer on the honours list.[630] The same day, after receiving a confidential report from a committee of the House of Commons that was looking into whether he had lied to Parliament over lockdown-breaking parties, Johnson announced his resignation as MP.[631] His resignation statement said he is "not alone in thinking that there is a witch-hunt under way, to take revenge for Brexit and ultimately to reverse the 2016 referendum result".[632] On 15 June, the Commons Privileges Committee published their report, which concluded that Johnson lied to and deliberately misled the House of Commons over Partygate, misled the Committee themselves during the hearing, and acted in contempt of the Committee itself through a "campaign of abuse and intimidation".[633] The report noted that had Johnson still been an MP, the Committee would have recommended he be suspended from Parliament for 90 days.[634][635] The contents of the report represented a recommendation to the House of Commons,[636] which accepted the report by 354 votes to seven.[637][638] On 16 June, Johnson was unveiled as a new columnist for the Daily Mail. The news website Politico Europe reported that Johnson would be paid a "very-high six-figure sum".[639][640] Johnson reportedly informed the Advisory Committee on Business Appointments half an hour before the columnist assignment was publicly announced. The committee ruled that Johnson committed a "clear breach" of the rules since he had not sought its advice on the matter within an appropriate timeframe.[641][642] In October 2023, Johnson announced he would join the television channel GB News as a commentator and programme maker for the upcoming General Election and US Presidential Election.[643][644] Johnson condemned Hamas' attack on Israel and expressed support for Israel's right to self-defence, saying "there can be no moral equivalence between the terrorism of Hamas and the actions of the Israeli Defense Forces". He rejected calls for a ceasefire in the 2023 Israel–Hamas war. Johnson criticised pro-Palestinian protests in the UK, saying participants "are giving moral support and comfort to the terrorists".[645] On 5 November 2023, Johnson visited Israel to express solidarity.[646] In February 2024, Johnson had a private meeting with the president of Venezuela, Nicolás Maduro.[647] In March 2024, The Times reported that Johnson is expected to campaign for the Conservatives in the next General Election.[648] Political positions and ideology Main article: Political positions of Boris Johnson Johnson at a demonstration against hospital closures with Liberal Democrat MP John Hemming (left) and Conservative MP Graham Stuart (centre) in March 2006 [I am] free-market, tolerant, broadly libertarian (though perhaps not ultra-libertarian), inclined to see the merit of traditions, anti-regulation, pro-immigrant, pro-standing on your own two feet, pro-alcohol, pro-hunting, pro-motorist and ready to defend to the death the right of Glenn Hoddle to believe in reincarnation. — Boris Johnson, 2011[145] Ideologically, Johnson has been described as a "One-Nation Tory".[649][650] Political scientists have described Johnson's political positions as ambiguous and contradictory, encompassing nativist, authoritarian and free market tendencies on the one hand, and one-nation liberal conservatism on the other.[651] Some scholars have questioned Johnson's commitment to one-nation conservativism, instead characterising his ideology as flexible and populist.[652][653] Purnell stated that Johnson regularly changed his opinion on political issues, commenting on what she perceived to be "an ideological emptiness beneath the staunch Tory exterior".[654] During his tenure as mayor, Johnson gained a reputation as "a liberal, centre-ground politician", according to Business Insider.[655] In 2012, the political scientist Tony Travers described Johnson as "a fairly classic—that is, small-state—mildly eurosceptic Conservative" who also embraced "modern social liberalism".[656] The Guardian stated that while mayor, Johnson blended economic and social liberalism,[657] with The Economist saying that in doing so Johnson "transcends his Tory identity" and adopts a more libertarian perspective.[658] According to political scientist Richard Hayton, Johnson's premiership was about Brexit, which served as a "national cause". Johnson evoked the discourse of popular sovereignty and anti-establishment populism to portray Parliament as seeking to "sabotage" Brexit, and in doing so, presented himself "as the true representative of 'the people'".[651][659] Scholars of comparative politics have drawn comparisons between Johnson and other populist leaders such as Donald Trump and Viktor Orban.[659] Some commentators have likened Johnson's political style to Trumpism,[660][661][662] although others have argued that Johnson's stance on matters such as social policy, immigration and free trade is liberal.[663] Johnson biographer Gimson wrote that Johnson is economically and socially "a genuine liberal", although he retains a "Tory element" through his "love of existing institutions, and a recognition of the inevitability of hierarchy".[664] In 2019, reacting to reports in The Sun, that Johnson had told cabinet colleagues he was "basically a Brexity Hezza", former deputy leader of the Conservative Party Michael Heseltine wrote: "I fear that any traces of liberal conservatism that still exist within the prime minister have long since been captured by the rightwing, foreigner-bashing, inward-looking view of the world that has come to characterise his fellow Brexiters."[665] Environment Johnson spoke about climate action at the COP26 climate summit in Glasgow on 1 November 2021 Johnson expressed climate sceptical views in several columns,[666][667][668] conflating the distinction between weather and climate and highlighting a factually incorrect claim by weather forecaster and conspiracy theorist Piers Corbyn that reduced solar activity could lead to a "mini-Ice Age".[669][668] Bloomberg News suggested that Johnson's interest in climate change increased after becoming prime minister, and suggested this could have been influenced by his wife Carrie Symonds and father Stanley Johnson, who are both environmental campaigners.[670] In 2019 and 2020, Johnson expressed support for the UK to have "net-zero" greenhouse gas emissions by 2050[671] and spoke about increasing ambition for mitigating climate change through carbon capture and storage[672] and a renewable energy transition.[673] During the 2021 United Nations Climate Change Conference, Johnson called for greater efforts towards climate change mitigation,[674] and welcomed the prospect of coal phase-out.[675] It was reported in 2022 that Johnson was convinced of the scientific consensus on climate change following a briefing by the chief scientist of the Met Office in January 2020, and subsequently made the issue a priority for his government.[666] According to TheyWorkForYou as of 2022, Johnson has "generally voted against" what it described as "key measures to prevent climate change"[clarification needed] while an MP,[676] and other sources confirm this.[669][667][needs update] Immigration and the European Union Johnson with EU Commission president Jean-Claude Juncker, 16 September 2019 Purnell believed it was the influence of Johnson's maternal family that led to him developing "a genuine abhorrence of racial discrimination".[677] In 2003, Johnson said, "I am not by any means an ultra-Eurosceptic. In some ways, I am a bit of a fan of the European Union. If we did not have one, we would invent something like it."[678] As mayor, Johnson was known as a supporter of immigration.[678] From 2009, he advocated a referendum on Britain's EU membership.[678][679][680] In 2018, during Brexit negotiations, Johnson called for Britain to leave the Single Market[678] and advocated a more liberal approach to immigration than that of Prime Minister May.[681] He stated many people believed that Britain's EU membership had led to the suppression of British wages and said the EU was intent on creating a "superstate" that would seek to rob Britain of its sovereignty.[678] In 2019, Johnson said he would take Britain out of the EU on 31 October whether there was a trade deal in place or not.[682] Johnson also stated his opposition to a referendum on the Brexit withdrawal agreement.[683] On 19 August 2019, Johnson wrote a letter to the EU asking for the removal of the "backstop" accord. The president of the European Council, Donald Tusk, rejected the proposal.[684] On 26 August 2019, Johnson said that Britain would not pay £39 billion for the withdrawal agreement were the UK to leave without a deal. The European Parliament Brexit coordinator Guy Verhofstadt said there would be no further negotiation unless the UK agreed to pay the entire sum.[685][needs update] Unionism and devolution Johnson described himself as a "fervent and passionate unionist".[686] He proposed building an Irish Sea Bridge, but he later scrapped this initiative.[687] The devolved administrations have criticised the Internal Market Bill for its re-centralisation of control over commerce.[688] Public image Main article: Public image of Boris Johnson Boris Johnson pulling a cow. Johnson visiting a cattle farm in Aberdeen in 2019 Johnson has said that "humour is a utensil that you can use to sugar the pill and to get important points across".[689] He is said to have a genuine desire to be liked.[690] Johnson has been described as having a light-hearted and charming persona;[691][692][693][694] many biographers and commentators suggest he has put significant effort into developing this version of himself.[695][696][697][689] He has also been described as heavily focused on his own interests,[698][699][700] with an often vitriolic or irresponsible way of conducting himself in private.[701][702][703] Johnson has been described as a divisive, controversial figure in British politics.[704][705][706] Supporters have praised him as witty and entertaining.[5] Johnson has been accused of lying or making misleading statements throughout his career,[707] and has been compared to former US president Donald Trump.[708][709][710][711] He has been considered a figure with broad appeal outside of the usual Conservative support base.[712] Johnson's premiership has been described by historians as the most controversial and scandal-affected since that of David Lloyd George about a century earlier.[713] Personal life Since Johnson was born in New York City to British parents, he held British-American dual citizenship. In 2015, he agreed to pay capital gains tax to the US tax authorities on a property that he inherited in the UK.[714][715][716] He renounced his US citizenship the following year.[717][718] Johnson has knowledge of French, Italian, German, Spanish,[86] Latin and Ancient Greek,[719] frequently alluding to classical references in his newspaper columns and his speeches.[695] Sonia Purnell wrote in 2011 that Johnson was a "highly evasive figure" when it came to his personal life,[720] who remained detached from others and who had few intimate friends.[721] Among friends and family, Johnson is more commonly known as Al (short for his forename Alexander), rather than Boris.[722] In 2007, Johnson said he had smoked cannabis before he went to university.[723] He has also said he had used cocaine.[724] Johnson partakes in cycling, tennis and pilates, and returned to road running in 2023.[725] He was considered obese in 2018 and overweight in 2020, and has spoken of making efforts to lose weight.[726][727] Johnson previously owned a £1.3 million buy-to-let townhouse in Camberwell, South London. According to HM Land Registry documents, he bought the four-bedroom property with his then-girlfriend Carrie Symonds in July 2019. The register of MPs' interests states that Johnson had a rental income of at least £10,000 a year.[728] In 2023, Johnson and Symonds bought Brightwell Manor, a £3.8 million moated mansion in Brightwell-cum-Sotwell, Oxfordshire.[729] Religion Johnson speaking at Westminster Abbey's Commonwealth Day Service, 2020 Johnson was baptised Catholic and later confirmed in the Church of England,[51] but has said that his faith "comes and goes"[730] and that he is not a serious practising Christian.[731] In 2020, his son Wilfred was baptised Catholic.[732] Johnson and Symonds married in a Catholic ceremony at Westminster Cathedral on 29 May 2021.[733] Since he was baptised Catholic, but his previous weddings were not conferred by the Catholic Church, they are considered putatively invalid.[734][735] Johnson holds ancient Greek statesman Pericles as a personal hero.[736][737] According to Johnson's biographer, Andrew Gimson, regarding ancient Greek and Roman polytheism: "it is clear that [Johnson] is inspired by the Romans, and even more by the Greeks, and repelled by the early Christians".[738] Johnson views secular humanism positively and sees it as owing more to the classical world than to Christian thinking.[739] However, in 2021, Johnson was asked if he held pre-Christian beliefs, which he denied, saying, "Christianity is a superb ethical system and I would count myself as a kind of very, very bad Christian... Christianity makes a lot of sense to me."[740] Relationships Children of Boris Johnson by Marina Wheeler Lara Lettice Johnson-Wheeler (b. 1993) Milo Arthur Johnson (b. 1995) Cassia Peaches Johnson (b. 1997) Theodore Apollo Johnson (b. 1999) by Helen Macintyre Stephanie Macintyre (b. 2009) by Carrie Symonds Wilfred Lawrie Nicholas Johnson (b. 2020) Romy Iris Charlotte Johnson (b. 2021) Frank Alfred Odysseus Johnson (b. 2023) [741][742][743] Johnson with his then-fiancée Carrie Symonds at the 2020 Commonwealth Day service In 1987, Johnson married Allegra Mostyn-Owen, daughter of the art historian William Mostyn-Owen and Italian writer Gaia Servadio.[744] The couple's marriage ended in divorce or annulment in 1993[e] and 12 days later Johnson married Marina Wheeler, a barrister, daughter of journalist Charles Wheeler.[748] Five weeks later, their first child was born.[749][750] They have four children: Lara Lettice, Milo Arthur, Cassia Peaches and Theodore Apollo.[751] Between 2000 and 2004, Johnson had an affair with Spectator columnist Petronella Wyatt when he was its editor, resulting in a terminated pregnancy and a miscarriage.[170] In April 2006, the News of the World alleged that Johnson was having an affair with Guardian journalist Anna Fazackerley. The pair did not comment; shortly afterward, Johnson employed Fazackerley.[180][181] In 2009, Johnson fathered a daughter with Helen Macintyre, an arts consultant.[211][752][753] In September 2021, Johnson stated that he had (then) six children, thereby denying the existence of further illegitimate children.[754] In September 2018, Johnson and Wheeler issued a statement confirming that they had separated months earlier;[755] they divorced in 2020.[756] Jennifer Arcuri said that she had an affair with Johnson from 2012 to 2016.[757][758] In 2019, Johnson was living with Carrie Symonds, the daughter of Matthew Symonds, co-founder of The Independent newspaper.[759] Johnson and Symonds became engaged in late 2019[760] and their son, Wilfred Lawrie Nicholas Johnson,[761] was born in April 2020.[762][763] On 29 May 2021, Johnson married Symonds at Westminster Cathedral.[733][764] Their daughter, Romy Iris Charlotte Johnson,[765] was born in December 2021.[766] Their third child, a son named Frank Alfred Odysseus Johnson, was born in July 2023.[767] Family and ancestors Johnson and his younger brother Leo in 2013 Johnson is the eldest of the four children of Stanley Johnson, a former Conservative member of the European Parliament, and the painter Charlotte Johnson Wahl (née Fawcett),[21] the daughter of Sir James Fawcett, president of the European Commission of Human Rights.[768] His younger siblings are Rachel Johnson, a writer and journalist, Leo Johnson, a broadcaster,[769] and Jo Johnson, ex-minister of state and former Conservative MP for Orpington, who resigned from his brother's government in September 2019[417] and is now a member of the House of Lords. Johnson's stepmother, Jenny, the second wife of his father Stanley, is the stepdaughter of Teddy Sieff, the former chairman of Marks & Spencer.[770] Having been a member of the Conservatives between 2008 and 2011, Rachel Johnson joined the Liberal Democrats in 2017.[771] She stood as a candidate for Change UK in the 2019 European Elections.[772] Johnson also has two half-siblings, Julia and Maximilian, through his father's later marriage to Jennifer Kidd.[773][774] Johnson's paternal grandfather, Wilfred Johnson, was an RAF pilot in Coastal Command during the Second World War.[775] Wilfred Johnson's father was the Ottoman Interior Minister and journalist Ali Kemal. Ali Kemal's father was a Turk while his mother was a Circassian reputedly of slave origin.[776][777][778] His other paternal ancestry includes English, German and French; one of his German ancestors was said to be the illegitimate daughter of Prince Paul of Württemberg and thus a descendant of George II of Great Britain,[779] which was later confirmed on an episode of Who Do You Think You Are?[780] Johnson's mother is the granddaughter of Elias Avery Lowe, a palaeographer and a Russian Jewish immigrant to the US,[781] and Pennsylvania-born Helen Tracy Lowe-Porter, a translator of Thomas Mann.[782] Referring to his varied ancestry, Johnson has described himself as a "one-man melting pot".[783] Johnson was given the middle name "Boris" after a White Russian émigré named Boris Litwin, who was a friend of his parents.[20] National NorwaySpainFranceBnF dataGermanyItalyIsraelBelgiumUnited StatesLatviaJapanCzech RepublicKoreaCroatiaNetherlandsPolandPortugal Artists MusicBrainz People UK Parliament Other IdRef vte Boris Johnson Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (2019–2022)MP for Uxbridge and South Ruislip (2015–2023)Mayor of London (2008–2016) Premiership First ministry 2019 Conservative Party leadership election45th G7 summitProrogation controversySuspension of rebel Conservative MPs Second ministry List of departures2020 cabinet reshuffle2021 cabinet reshuffleEU withdrawal agreement Northern Ireland ProtocolCOVID-19 pandemic government responselockdownvaccinationscontractscontract controversiesDominic Cummings scandalPartygateCommons Privileges Committee investigationDeath and funeral of the Duke of EdinburghDowning Street refurbishment controversy2021 State Opening of Parliament47th G7 summitNew Atlantic CharterEvacuations from AfghanistanCOP26Irish Sea Bridge feasibility studyOwen Paterson scandal Parliamentary second jobs controversyLevelling-up policy Growth dealsWhite PaperGreat British RailwaysIntegrated Rail PlanTrade negotiation between the UK and the EU Trade and Cooperation AgreementUK cost of living crisisRwanda asylum plan2022 State Opening of Parliament2022 Conservative Party confidence voteChris Pincher scandalJuly 2022 government crisis 2022 cabinet reshuffleConservative Party leadership election2022 vote of confidence in the Johnson ministryResignation Honours Political positionsInternational tripsBrexit Mayoralty "Boris Island""Boris Bikes"New Routemaster2011 London riotsLondon Cable Car2012 Summer Olympics2012 Summer ParalympicsGarden BridgeNight TubeJennifer Arcuri Other offices held Leader of the Conservative Party (2019–2022)Commonwealth Chair-in-Office (2019–2022)Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs (2016–2018)Shadow Minister for Higher Education (2005–2007)Shadow Minister for the Arts (2004)MP for Henley (2001–2008) Elections 2008 (Mayoral)2012 (Mayoral)2019 (General)2021 (Local)2022 (Local) Books By Johnson Friends, Voters, Countrymen (2002)Seventy-Two Virgins (2004)The Dream of Rome (2006)The Churchill Factor (2014) About Johnson Boris: The Rise of Boris Johnson (2006)Boris v. Ken (2008) Public image Cultural depictions Headcases (2008 TV series)When Boris Met Dave (2009)Brexit: The Uncivil War (2019)Spitting Image (2020 TV series)"Boris Johnson Is a F*cking Cunt" (2020)This England (2022 TV series) "Greased piglet""Dead cat strategy" Family Allegra Mostyn-Owen (first wife)Marina Wheeler (second wife)Carrie Johnson (third wife)Lara Johnson-Wheeler (daughter)Dilyn (dog)Stanley Johnson (father)Charlotte Fawcett (mother)Rachel Johnson (sister)Jo Johnson (brother)Edmund Fawcett (uncle)James Fawcett (grandfather)Ali Kemal (great-grandfather)Elias Avery Lowe (great-grandfather)H. T. Lowe-Porter (great-grandmother) ← Theresa MayLiz Truss → ←  Ken LivingstoneSadiq Khan → Offices and distinctions Media offices Preceded by Frank Johnson Editor of The Spectator 1999–2005 Succeeded by Matthew d'Ancona Parliament of the United Kingdom Preceded by Michael Heseltine Member of Parliament for Henley 2001–2008 Succeeded by John Howell Preceded by John Randall Member of Parliament for Uxbridge and South Ruislip 2015–2023 Succeeded by Steve Tuckwell Political offices Preceded by Ken Livingstone Mayor of London 2008–2016 Succeeded by Sadiq Khan Preceded by Philip Hammond Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs 2016–2018 Succeeded by Jeremy Hunt Preceded by Theresa May Prime Minister of the United Kingdom 2019–2022 Succeeded by Liz Truss Party political offices Preceded by Theresa May Leader of the Conservative Party 2019–2022 Succeeded by Liz Truss Diplomatic posts Preceded by Emmanuel Macron (2019) Chair of the Group of Seven 2021 Succeeded by Olaf Scholz Orders of precedence in the United Kingdom Preceded by Alun Cairns as Privy Counsellor Gentlemen Privy Counsellor Succeeded by David Gauke as Privy Counsellor Articles related to Boris Johnson Portals:  Biography icon Politics  Conservatism flag United Kingdom Boris Johnson at Wikipedia's sister projects: Media from Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Data from Wikidata Authority control databases Edit this at Wikidata Categories: Boris Johnson1964 birthsLiving people20th-century Anglicans20th-century British journalists20th-century British male writers20th-century British non-fiction writers21st-century Anglicans21st-century British journalists21st-century British male writers21st-century British non-fiction writers21st-century British novelists21st-century prime ministers of the United KingdomAlumni of Balliol College, OxfordAlumni of the European SchoolsBritish AnglicansBritish biographersBritish columnistsBritish expatriates in BelgiumBritish magazine editorsBritish male journalistsBritish male novelistsBritish monarchistsBritish political journalistsBritish political writersBritish satiristsBritish Secretaries of State for Foreign and Commonwealth AffairsBullingdon Club membersBoris Johnson familyCharters Symonds familyConservative Party (UK) MPs for English constituenciesConservative Party (UK) mayorsConservative Party prime ministers of the United KingdomConverts to Anglicanism from Roman CatholicismFormer United States citizensJournalists from LondonJournalists from New York CityLeaders of the Conservative Party (UK)Mayors of LondonMembers of the Privy Council of the United KingdomPeople associated with transport in LondonPeople educated at Ashdown HousePeople educated at Eton CollegePeople from Notting HillPeople from the Upper East SidePeople who renounced United States citizenshipPoliticians from ManhattanPresidents of the Oxford UnionThe Daily Telegraph peopleThe Spectator editorsThe Times peopleUK MPs 2001–2005UK MPs 2005–2010UK MPs 2015–2017UK MPs 2017–2019UK MPs 2019–presentWriters from LondonWriters from Manhattan

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