Magnetisches Hämatit Tigerauge Obsidian Armband Silber Schutz Gesundheitstherapie

EUR 6,99 0 Gebote oder Preisvorschlag 2d 14h 57m 13s, EUR 6,93 Versand, 30-Tag Rücknahmen, eBay-Käuferschutz
Verkäufer: anddownthewaterfall ✉️ (33.565) 99.8%, Artikelstandort: Manchester, Take a Look at My Other Items, GB, Versand nach: WORLDWIDE, Artikelnummer: 315241708158 Magnetisches Hämatit Tigerauge Obsidian Armband Silber Schutz Gesundheitstherapie. Crystal Bracelet Tiger Eye * Hematite * Black Obsidian This is a Natural Crystal Bracelet The Crystals provide health benefits to the  wearer. The bracelet is 21cm(8.27inch), and each bead is 8mm in diameter In Excellent Condition Sorry about the poor quality photos. They dont do the coin justice which looks a lot better in real life Starting at under a Pound...With No Reserve..If your the only bidder you win it for less than £1....Grab a Bargain!!!! AII have a lot of Similar Items on Ebay so why not >  Check out my other items ! Bid with Confidence - Check My Almost 100% Positive Feedback All My Items start at one penny and I always discount shipping / postage on multiple items Check out my other items !  All Payment Methods in All Major Currencies Accepted.  Be sure to add me to your favourites list ! All Items Dispatched within 24 hours of Receiving Payment. Instant Positive Feedback Automatically left upon receving payment

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Bracelet Article Talk Read Edit View history Tools From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia For other uses, see Bracelet (disambiguation). This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Bracelet" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (October 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) A decorative gold charm bracelet showing a heart-shaped locket, seahorse, crystal, telephone, bear, spaceship, and grand piano. Chain mail bracelet, in Byzantine weave, with silver-plated copper rings and green aluminium rings A bracelet is an article of jewellery that is worn around the wrist. Bracelets may serve different uses, such as being worn as an ornament. When worn as ornaments, bracelets may have a supportive function to hold other items of decoration, such as charms. Medical and identity information are marked on some bracelets, such as allergy bracelets, hospital patient-identification tags, and bracelet tags for newborn babies. Bracelets may be worn to signify a certain phenomenon, such as breast cancer awareness, or for religious/cultural purposes. If a bracelet is a single, inflexible loop, it is often called a bangle. When it is worn around the ankle it is called an ankle bracelet or anklet. A boot bracelet is used to decorate boots. Bracelets can be manufactured from metal, leather, cloth, plastic, bead or other materials, and jewelry bracelets sometimes contain jewels, rocks, wood, shells, crystals, metal, or plastic hoops, pearls and many more materials. Origin Ancient Egyptian hinged cuff bracelet, c. 1479 –1425 BCE Penannular bracelet, Oxus Treasure, Achaemenid period, c. 500 BCE Although the term armlet may be technically similar, it is taken to mean an item that sits on the upper shoulder: an arm ring. The origin of the term 'bracelet' is from the Greek brachile meaning 'of the arm', via the Old French bracel. A bracelet is also a small brace or bracer (an arm-guard used by archers). Cultural and religious significance The history of Egyptian bracelets is as old as 5000 BCE. Starting with materials like bones, stones and woods to serve religious and spiritual interests. From the National Geographic Society, the Scarab Bracelet is one of the most recognized symbols of ancient Egypt. The scarab represented rebirth and regeneration. Carved scarabs were worn as jewelry and wrapped into the linen bandages of mummies. Myth told of the scarab god, Khepri, pushing the sun across the sky. In 2008, Russian archaeologists from the Institute of Archaeology and Ethnology of Novosibirsk, working at the site of Denisova Cave in the Altai Mountains of Siberia, uncovered a small bone fragment from the fifth finger of a juvenile hominin, dubbed the "X woman" (referring to the maternal descent of mitochondrial DNA),[1] or the Denisova hominin. Artifacts, including a bracelet, excavated in the cave at the same level were carbon dated to around 40,000 BP. In Bulgaria, there is a tradition called martenitsa, which sometimes involves tying a red and white string around the wrist to please Baba Marta in order for spring to come sooner. In Greece, a similar tradition, weaving a bracelet from a red and white string on the first day of March and wearing it till the end of summer, is called "Martis" and is considered to help protect the wearer's skin from the strong Greek sun. In some parts of India, the number and type of bangles worn by a woman denotes her marital status[2] In Sikhism, an iron bracelet is one of the most mandatory articles known as the Five Ks. In Latin America, Azabache Bracelets are worn to protect against the Mal de ojo, or evil eye. The evil eye is believed to result of excessive admiration or envious looks by others. Having newborn babies wear an azabache (a gold bracelet or necklace with a black or red coral charm in the form of a fist), is believed to protect them from the evil eye.[citation needed] Types Alternative health Alternative health bracelets, such as ionized bracelets, karma bracelets, magnetic bracelets, Power Balance hologram bracelets, etc., are not distinguished by their design but rather the beneficial function claimed for them by their manufacturers and distributors. Karma bracelets are made from wood beads and may contain various charms, and are associated with bringing good luck and good karma to those who choose to wear it.[citation needed] No claims of effectiveness made by manufacturers have ever been substantiated by independent sources.[citation needed] Bangles Metal bangles Hard material or rigid bracelets, usually made from metal, wood, or plastic, are referred to as bangles or bangle bracelets. They can be smooth, textured or set with stones. In India, glass bangles are common. There are a lot of handcrafted bangles in India too. Made from ordinary glass that is about 3 to 6 millimetres (1⁄8 to 1⁄4 in) in width, they are worn in groups so that arm movement causes them to make a gracious sound rather like the clinking of wind chimes. In India, it is also common that young children will wear thin gold bangles on their hands and ankles. Beaded Amber beaded bracelet Usually made from loose beads with a center hole and connected by a piece of string or elastic band through the holes. Most often made with wooden beads, plastic, glass or even crystal beads. Charm A charm bracelet carries personal charms: decorative pendants or trinkets which are signifiers of important things, interests/hobbies, and memories in the wearer's life. The decorative charms usually carry personal or sentimental attachment by the owner. Are popular with all age ranges, but especially for children. In recent history,[when?] Italian charm bracelets have become trendy. While traditional charms dangle, Italian charms feature individual pieces soldered flat onto the surface of the link. Link Link bracelet Bracelets made from connecting or linking various or similar components or jewelry findings. Link bracelets can be made of a variety of materials including metals and gemstones. Penannular Penannular, meaning an incomplete circle, has been a very common form for bracelets, especially ones made in a single piece of a slightly flexible material such as metal or plastic. It is particularly popular in gold. Slap In the late 1980s and early 1990s, "slap bracelets"—flat, felt-covered metal strips that curved around one's wrist when gently hit against it—were a popular fad. Often adorned with neon colors and vivid graphics, these bracelets could be found at inexpensive retailers. A false rumor emerged that "slap bracelets" caused bleeding and puncture wounds and thus they fell out of style. Sports Main article: Gel bracelet Silicone and stainless steel emergency ID sports bracelet (2010). The use of colored silicone rubber as a material for producing sports bracelets was popularized by Nike and Lance Armstrong through the Yellow Livestrong wristband starting in May 2003.[3] Their success has led to the silicone bracelet becoming a low cost tool for various awareness, information, and charity campaigns. This can be likened to the use of awareness ribbons for similar purposes. These bracelets are also known as "baller id bands", "baller bands" or "wristbands".[citation needed] They can also be referred to as rubber wristbands, silicone wristbands or gel wristbands.[4] For sport climbing, bracelets are designed with climbing cords (dynamic rope) to serve as a mountain climbing gear. Tennis Diamond and gold in-line jewelry bracelet, a.k.a. "tennis bracelet". While playing a match at the 1978 U.S. Open, tennis player Chris Evert was wearing a diamond line bracelet, which fell from her wrist to the surface of the court.[5][6] She said about this, "I dropped my tennis bracelet", and since then diamond line bracelets have also been called "tennis bracelets".[5][note 1] The term tennis bracelet appears in print before this incident, but not necessarily referring to diamond line bracelets. An advertisement for a "sterling tennis bracelet" in The New Yorker in 1975, for example, shows a solid silver bangle featuring a tennis racket design, made by the Gorham Manufacturing Company.[7] Tennis bracelets are made up of many identical settings, each of which incorporates a hinge. The links are usually riveted or soldered from the sides of the bracelet allowing it to flex freely around the wrist with minimal movement left-to-right. A typical tennis bracelet will feature round diamonds set in four claw settings. Tennis bracelets can be adjusted to fit the wearer by removing links, this must be done by a jeweller. See also Anklet Armband Brace (armor) Friendship bracelet List of topics characterized as pseudoscience (bracelets with health/healing/performance benefits) Manillas Necklace Nomination (jewelry brand) POW bracelet Red string (Kabbalah) Slave bracelet Torc Explanatory notes  Many sources date the incident to 1987. References  Phillips, Tom (10 May 2008). "The country of the future finally arrives". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 6 June 2008.  "The role of bangles in a traditional Indian wedding". The Times of India. 6 August 2016. Retrieved 6 August 2016.  "Cycling Champion, Author and Cancer Survivor Lance Armstrong to Keynote Americas' SAP Users' Group Annual Conference - MarketWatch". Archived from the original on 6 May 2012. Retrieved 28 May 2012.  Mulligan, Sean. "Custom Rubber Bracelets". Retrieved 24 October 2007.  Carolyn Williams. "Why Are Tennis Bracelets Called Tennis Bracelets?". Livestrong.Com. Retrieved 18 December 2017.  Marion Fasel. "The True Story of Chris Evert's Tennis Bracelet". theadventurine.com. Retrieved 1 March 2020.  Ross, Harold Wallace; White, Katharine Sergeant Angell (1975). The New Yorker. F-R Publishing Corporation. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Bracelets. Metropolitan jewelry, a collection catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art Libraries (fully available online as PDF), which contains material on bracelets Bracelets at the University of Michigan Museum of Art Bracelets at the British Museum vte Jewellery Forms AnkletBarretteBelly chainBelt buckleBindiBolo tieBraceletBroochChatelaineCollar pinCrownCufflinkEarringFerronnièreGenitalLapel pinNecklaceNeck ringPectoralPendantRingTiaraTie chainTie clipTie pinToe ringWatch pocketstrap Making People Bench jewelerClockmakerGoldsmithJewellery designerLapidaristSilversmithWatchmaker Processes CarvingCasting centrifugallost-waxvacuumEnamelingEngravingFiligreeKazaziyeMetal clayPlatingPolishingRepoussé and chasingSolderingStonesettingWire sculptureWire wrapped jewelry Tools Draw plateFileHammerMandrelPliers Materials Precious metals GoldPalladiumPlatinumRhodiumSilver Precious metal alloys Britannia silverColored goldCrown goldElectrumShakudōShibuichiSterling silver ArgentiumTumbaga Base metals BrassBronzeCopperMokume-ganeNickel silver (alpacca)PewterPinchbeckStainless steelTitaniumTungsten Mineral gemstones AgateAmazoniteAmethystAventurineBeryl (red)CarnelianChrysoberylChrysocollaDiamondDiopsideEmeraldFluoriteGarnetHowliteJadeJasperKyaniteLabradoriteLapis lazuliLarimarMalachiteMarcasiteMoonstoneObsidianOnyxOpalPeridotPrasioliteQuartz (smoky)RubySapphireSodaliteSpinelSunstoneTanzaniteTiger's eyeTopazTourmalineTurquoiseVarisciteZircon Organic gemstones AbaloneAmberAmmoliteCopalCoral BlackPreciousIvoryJetNacreOperculumPearlTortoiseshell Other natural objects BezoarBog-woodEbonite (vulcanite)Gutta-perchaHairShell Spondylus shellToadstone Terms Art jewelryCarat (mass)Carat (purity)FindingFineness Related topicsBody piercingFashionGemologyMetalworkingPhaleristicsWearable art Authority control databases: National Edit this at Wikidata FranceBnF dataGermanyIsraelUnited StatesCzech Republic Categories: BraceletsWrist Crystal Article Talk Read View source View history Tools Page semi-protected From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia "Crystalline" redirects here. For the Björk song, see Crystalline (song). "Xtal" redirects here. For other uses, see Xtal (disambiguation). This article is about crystalline solids. For other uses, see Crystal (disambiguation). Crystals of amethyst quartz Microscopically, a single crystal has atoms in a near-perfect periodic arrangement; a polycrystal is composed of many microscopic crystals (called "crystallites" or "grains"); and an amorphous solid (such as glass) has no periodic arrangement even microscopically. A crystal or crystalline solid is a solid material whose constituents (such as atoms, molecules, or ions) are arranged in a highly ordered microscopic structure, forming a crystal lattice that extends in all directions.[1][2] In addition, macroscopic single crystals are usually identifiable by their geometrical shape, consisting of flat faces with specific, characteristic orientations. The scientific study of crystals and crystal formation is known as crystallography. The process of crystal formation via mechanisms of crystal growth is called crystallization or solidification. The word crystal derives from the Ancient Greek word κρύσταλλος (krustallos), meaning both "ice" and "rock crystal",[3] from κρύος (kruos), "icy cold, frost".[4][5] Examples of large crystals include snowflakes, diamonds, and table salt. Most inorganic solids are not crystals but polycrystals, i.e. many microscopic crystals fused together into a single solid. Polycrystals include most metals, rocks, ceramics, and ice. A third category of solids is amorphous solids, where the atoms have no periodic structure whatsoever. Examples of amorphous solids include glass, wax, and many plastics. Despite the name, lead crystal, crystal glass, and related products are not crystals, but rather types of glass, i.e. amorphous solids. Crystals, or crystalline solids, are often used in pseudoscientific practices such as crystal therapy, and, along with gemstones, are sometimes associated with spellwork in Wiccan beliefs and related religious movements.[6][7][8] Crystal structure (microscopic) Halite (table salt, NaCl): Microscopic and macroscopic Halite crystal (microscopic) Microscopic structure of a halite crystal. (Purple is sodium ion, green is chlorine ion). There is cubic symmetry in the atoms' arrangement Halite crystal (Macroscopic) Macroscopic (~16 cm) halite crystal. The right-angles between crystal faces are due to the cubic symmetry of the atoms' arrangement Main article: Crystal structure The scientific definition of a "crystal" is based on the microscopic arrangement of atoms inside it, called the crystal structure. A crystal is a solid where the atoms form a periodic arrangement. (Quasicrystals are an exception, see below). Not all solids are crystals. For example, when liquid water starts freezing, the phase change begins with small ice crystals that grow until they fuse, forming a polycrystalline structure. In the final block of ice, each of the small crystals (called "crystallites" or "grains") is a true crystal with a periodic arrangement of atoms, but the whole polycrystal does not have a periodic arrangement of atoms, because the periodic pattern is broken at the grain boundaries. Most macroscopic inorganic solids are polycrystalline, including almost all metals, ceramics, ice, rocks, etc. Solids that are neither crystalline nor polycrystalline, such as glass, are called amorphous solids, also called glassy, vitreous, or noncrystalline. These have no periodic order, even microscopically. There are distinct differences between crystalline solids and amorphous solids: most notably, the process of forming a glass does not release the latent heat of fusion, but forming a crystal does. A crystal structure (an arrangement of atoms in a crystal) is characterized by its unit cell, a small imaginary box containing one or more atoms in a specific spatial arrangement. The unit cells are stacked in three-dimensional space to form the crystal. The symmetry of a crystal is constrained by the requirement that the unit cells stack perfectly with no gaps. There are 219 possible crystal symmetries (230 is commonly cited, but this treats chiral equivalents as separate entities), called crystallographic space groups.[9] These are grouped into 7 crystal systems, such as cubic crystal system (where the crystals may form cubes or rectangular boxes, such as halite shown at right) or hexagonal crystal system (where the crystals may form hexagons, such as ordinary water ice). Crystal faces, shapes and crystallographic forms As a halite crystal is growing, new atoms can very easily attach to the parts of the surface with rough atomic-scale structure and many dangling bonds. Therefore, these parts of the crystal grow out very quickly (yellow arrows). Eventually, the whole surface consists of smooth, stable faces, where new atoms cannot as easily attach themselves. Crystals are commonly recognized, macroscopically, by their shape, consisting of flat faces with sharp angles. These shape characteristics are not necessary for a crystal—a crystal is scientifically defined by its microscopic atomic arrangement, not its macroscopic shape—but the characteristic macroscopic shape is often present and easy to see. Euhedral crystals are those that have obvious, well-formed flat faces. Anhedral crystals do not, usually because the crystal is one grain in a polycrystalline solid. The flat faces (also called facets) of a euhedral crystal are oriented in a specific way relative to the underlying atomic arrangement of the crystal: they are planes of relatively low Miller index.[10] This occurs because some surface orientations are more stable than others (lower surface energy). As a crystal grows, new atoms attach easily to the rougher and less stable parts of the surface, but less easily to the flat, stable surfaces. Therefore, the flat surfaces tend to grow larger and smoother, until the whole crystal surface consists of these plane surfaces. (See diagram on right.) One of the oldest techniques in the science of crystallography consists of measuring the three-dimensional orientations of the faces of a crystal, and using them to infer the underlying crystal symmetry. A crystal's crystallographic forms are sets of possible faces of the crystal that are related by one of the symmetries of the crystal. For example, crystals of galena often take the shape of cubes, and the six faces of the cube belong to a crystallographic form that displays one of the symmetries of the isometric crystal system. Galena also sometimes crystallizes as octahedrons, and the eight faces of the octahedron belong to another crystallographic form reflecting a different symmetry of the isometric system. A crystallographic form is described by placing the Miller indices of one of its faces within brackets. For example, the octahedral form is written as {111}, and the other faces in the form are implied by the symmetry of the crystal. Forms may be closed, meaning that the form can completely enclose a volume of space, or open, meaning that it cannot. The cubic and octahedral forms are examples of closed forms. All the forms of the isometric system are closed, while all the forms of the monoclinic and triclinic crystal systems are open. A crystal's faces may all belong to the same closed form, or they may be a combination of multiple open or closed forms.[11] A crystal's habit is its visible external shape. This is determined by the crystal structure (which restricts the possible facet orientations), the specific crystal chemistry and bonding (which may favor some facet types over others), and the conditions under which the crystal formed. Occurrence in nature Ice crystals Fossil shell with calcite crystals Rocks By volume and weight, the largest concentrations of crystals in the Earth are part of its solid bedrock. Crystals found in rocks typically range in size from a fraction of a millimetre to several centimetres across, although exceptionally large crystals are occasionally found. As of 1999, the world's largest known naturally occurring crystal is a crystal of beryl from Malakialina, Madagascar, 18 m (59 ft) long and 3.5 m (11 ft) in diameter, and weighing 380,000 kg (840,000 lb).[12] Some crystals have formed by magmatic and metamorphic processes, giving origin to large masses of crystalline rock. The vast majority of igneous rocks are formed from molten magma and the degree of crystallization depends primarily on the conditions under which they solidified. Such rocks as granite, which have cooled very slowly and under great pressures, have completely crystallized; but many kinds of lava were poured out at the surface and cooled very rapidly, and in this latter group a small amount of amorphous or glassy matter is common. Other crystalline rocks, the metamorphic rocks such as marbles, mica-schists and quartzites, are recrystallized. This means that they were at first fragmental rocks like limestone, shale and sandstone and have never been in a molten condition nor entirely in solution, but the high temperature and pressure conditions of metamorphism have acted on them by erasing their original structures and inducing recrystallization in the solid state.[13] Other rock crystals have formed out of precipitation from fluids, commonly water, to form druses or quartz veins. Evaporites such as halite, gypsum and some limestones have been deposited from aqueous solution, mostly owing to evaporation in arid climates. Ice Water-based ice in the form of snow, sea ice, and glaciers are common crystalline/polycrystalline structures on Earth and other planets.[14] A single snowflake is a single crystal or a collection of crystals,[15] while an ice cube is a polycrystal.[16] Ice crystals may form from cooling liquid water below its freezing point, such as ice cubes or a frozen lake. Frost, snowflakes, or small ice crystals suspended in the air (ice fog) more often grow from a supersaturated gaseous-solution of water vapor and air, when the temperature of the air drops below its dew point, without passing through a liquid state. Another unusual property of water is that it expands rather than contracts when it crystallizes.[17] Organigenic crystals Many living organisms are able to produce crystals grown from an aqueous solution, for example calcite and aragonite in the case of most molluscs or hydroxylapatite in the case of bones and teeth in vertebrates. Polymorphism and allotropy Main articles: Polymorphism (materials science) and Allotropy The same group of atoms can often solidify in many different ways. Polymorphism is the ability of a solid to exist in more than one crystal form. For example, water ice is ordinarily found in the hexagonal form Ice Ih, but can also exist as the cubic Ice Ic, the rhombohedral ice II, and many other forms. The different polymorphs are usually called different phases. In addition, the same atoms may be able to form noncrystalline phases. For example, water can also form amorphous ice, while SiO2 can form both fused silica (an amorphous glass) and quartz (a crystal). Likewise, if a substance can form crystals, it can also form polycrystals. For pure chemical elements, polymorphism is known as allotropy. For example, diamond and graphite are two crystalline forms of carbon, while amorphous carbon is a noncrystalline form. Polymorphs, despite having the same atoms, may have very different properties. For example, diamond is the hardest substance known, while graphite is so soft that it is used as a lubricant. Chocolate can form six different types of crystals, but only one has the suitable hardness and melting point for candy bars and confections. Polymorphism in steel is responsible for its ability to be heat treated, giving it a wide range of properties. Polyamorphism is a similar phenomenon where the same atoms can exist in more than one amorphous solid form. Crystallization Main articles: Crystallization and Crystal growth Vertical cooling crystallizer in a beet sugar factory. Crystallization is the process of forming a crystalline structure from a fluid or from materials dissolved in a fluid. (More rarely, crystals may be deposited directly from gas; see: epitaxy and frost.) Crystallization is a complex and extensively-studied field, because depending on the conditions, a single fluid can solidify into many different possible forms. It can form a single crystal, perhaps with various possible phases, stoichiometries, impurities, defects, and habits. Or, it can form a polycrystal, with various possibilities for the size, arrangement, orientation, and phase of its grains. The final form of the solid is determined by the conditions under which the fluid is being solidified, such as the chemistry of the fluid, the ambient pressure, the temperature, and the speed with which all these parameters are changing. Specific industrial techniques to produce large single crystals (called boules) include the Czochralski process and the Bridgman technique. Other less exotic methods of crystallization may be used, depending on the physical properties of the substance, including hydrothermal synthesis, sublimation, or simply solvent-based crystallization. Large single crystals can be created by geological processes. For example, selenite crystals in excess of 10 m are found in the Cave of the Crystals in Naica, Mexico.[18] For more details on geological crystal formation, see above. Crystals can also be formed by biological processes, see above. Conversely, some organisms have special techniques to prevent crystallization from occurring, such as antifreeze proteins. Defects, impurities, and twinning Main articles: Crystallographic defect, Impurity, Crystal twinning, and Mosaicity Two types of crystallographic defects. Top right: edge dislocation. Bottom right: screw dislocation. An ideal crystal has every atom in a perfect, exactly repeating pattern.[19] However, in reality, most crystalline materials have a variety of crystallographic defects, places where the crystal's pattern is interrupted. The types and structures of these defects may have a profound effect on the properties of the materials. A few examples of crystallographic defects include vacancy defects (an empty space where an atom should fit), interstitial defects (an extra atom squeezed in where it does not fit), and dislocations (see figure at right). Dislocations are especially important in materials science, because they help determine the mechanical strength of materials. Another common type of crystallographic defect is an impurity, meaning that the "wrong" type of atom is present in a crystal. For example, a perfect crystal of diamond would only contain carbon atoms, but a real crystal might perhaps contain a few boron atoms as well. These boron impurities change the diamond's color to slightly blue. Likewise, the only difference between ruby and sapphire is the type of impurities present in a corundum crystal. Twinned pyrite crystal group. In semiconductors, a special type of impurity, called a dopant, drastically changes the crystal's electrical properties. Semiconductor devices, such as transistors, are made possible largely by putting different semiconductor dopants into different places, in specific patterns. Twinning is a phenomenon somewhere between a crystallographic defect and a grain boundary. Like a grain boundary, a twin boundary has different crystal orientations on its two sides. But unlike a grain boundary, the orientations are not random, but related in a specific, mirror-image way. Mosaicity is a spread of crystal plane orientations. A mosaic crystal consists of smaller crystalline units that are somewhat misaligned with respect to each other. Chemical bonds In general, solids can be held together by various types of chemical bonds, such as metallic bonds, ionic bonds, covalent bonds, van der Waals bonds, and others. None of these are necessarily crystalline or non-crystalline. However, there are some general trends as follows: Metals crystallize rapidly and are almost always polycrystalline, though there are exceptions like amorphous metal and single-crystal metals. The latter are grown synthetically, for example, fighter-jet turbines are typically made by first growing a single crystal of titanium alloy, increasing its strength and melting point over polycrystalline titanium. A small piece of metal may naturally form into a single crystal, such as Type 2 telluric iron, but larger pieces generally do not unless extremely slow cooling occurs. For example, iron meteorites are often composed of single crystal, or many large crystals that may be several meters in size, due to very slow cooling in the vacuum of space. The slow cooling may allow the precipitation of a separate phase within the crystal lattice, which form at specific angles determined by the lattice, called Widmanstatten patterns.[20] Ionic compounds typically form when a metal reacts with a non-metal, such as sodium with chlorine. These often form substances called salts, such as sodium chloride (table salt) or potassium nitrate (saltpeter), with crystals that are often brittle and cleave relatively easily. Ionic materials are usually crystalline or polycrystalline. In practice, large salt crystals can be created by solidification of a molten fluid, or by crystallization out of a solution. Some ionic compounds can be very hard, such as oxides like aluminium oxide found in many gemstones such as ruby and synthetic sapphire. Covalently bonded solids (sometimes called covalent network solids) are typically formed from one or more non-metals, such as carbon or silicon and oxygen, and are often very hard, rigid, and brittle. These are also very common, notable examples being diamond and quartz respectively.[21] Weak van der Waals forces also help hold together certain crystals, such as crystalline molecular solids, as well as the interlayer bonding in graphite. Substances such as fats, lipids and wax form molecular bonds because the large molecules do not pack as tightly as atomic bonds. This leads to crystals that are much softer and more easily pulled apart or broken. Common examples include chocolates, candles, or viruses. Water ice and dry ice are examples of other materials with molecular bonding.[22]Polymer materials generally will form crystalline regions, but the lengths of the molecules usually prevent complete crystallization—and sometimes polymers are completely amorphous. Quasicrystals The material holmium–magnesium–zinc (Ho–Mg–Zn) forms quasicrystals, which can take on the macroscopic shape of a pentagonal dodecahedron. Only quasicrystals can take this 5-fold symmetry. The edges are 2 mm long. Main article: Quasicrystal A quasicrystal consists of arrays of atoms that are ordered but not strictly periodic. They have many attributes in common with ordinary crystals, such as displaying a discrete pattern in x-ray diffraction, and the ability to form shapes with smooth, flat faces. Quasicrystals are most famous for their ability to show five-fold symmetry, which is impossible for an ordinary periodic crystal (see crystallographic restriction theorem). The International Union of Crystallography has redefined the term "crystal" to include both ordinary periodic crystals and quasicrystals ("any solid having an essentially discrete diffraction diagram"[23]). Quasicrystals, first discovered in 1982, are quite rare in practice. Only about 100 solids are known to form quasicrystals, compared to about 400,000 periodic crystals known in 2004.[24] The 2011 Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded to Dan Shechtman for the discovery of quasicrystals.[25] Special properties from anisotropy See also: Crystal optics Crystals can have certain special electrical, optical, and mechanical properties that glass and polycrystals normally cannot. These properties are related to the anisotropy of the crystal, i.e. the lack of rotational symmetry in its atomic arrangement. One such property is the piezoelectric effect, where a voltage across the crystal can shrink or stretch it. Another is birefringence, where a double image appears when looking through a crystal. Moreover, various properties of a crystal, including electrical conductivity, electrical permittivity, and Young's modulus, may be different in different directions in a crystal. For example, graphite crystals consist of a stack of sheets, and although each individual sheet is mechanically very strong, the sheets are rather loosely bound to each other. Therefore, the mechanical strength of the material is quite different depending on the direction of stress. Not all crystals have all of these properties. Conversely, these properties are not quite exclusive to crystals. They can appear in glasses or polycrystals that have been made anisotropic by working or stress—for example, stress-induced birefringence. Crystallography Main article: Crystallography Crystallography is the science of measuring the crystal structure (in other words, the atomic arrangement) of a crystal. One widely used crystallography technique is X-ray diffraction. Large numbers of known crystal structures are stored in crystallographic databases. Image gallery Insulin crystals grown in earth orbit. Insulin crystals grown in earth orbit.   Hoar frost: A type of ice crystal (picture taken from a distance of about 5 cm). Hoar frost: A type of ice crystal (picture taken from a distance of about 5 cm).   Gallium, a metal that easily forms large crystals. Gallium, a metal that easily forms large crystals.   An apatite crystal sits front and center on cherry-red rhodochroite rhombs, purple fluorite cubes, quartz and a dusting of brass-yellow pyrite cubes. An apatite crystal sits front and center on cherry-red rhodochroite rhombs, purple fluorite cubes, quartz and a dusting of brass-yellow pyrite cubes.   Boules of silicon, like this one, are an important type of industrially-produced single crystal. Boules of silicon, like this one, are an important type of industrially-produced single crystal.   A specimen consisting of a bornite-coated chalcopyrite crystal nestled in a bed of clear quartz crystals and lustrous pyrite crystals. The bornite-coated crystal is up to 1.5 cm across. A specimen consisting of a bornite-coated chalcopyrite crystal nestled in a bed of clear quartz crystals and lustrous pyrite crystals. The bornite-coated crystal is up to 1.5 cm across.   Needle-like millerite crystals partially encased in calcite crystal and oxidized on their surfaces to zaratite; from the Devonian Milwaukee Formation of Wisconsin Needle-like millerite crystals partially encased in calcite crystal and oxidized on their surfaces to zaratite; from the Devonian Milwaukee Formation of Wisconsin   Crystallized sugar. Crystals on the right were grown from a sugar cube, while the left from a single seed crystal taken from the right. Red dye was added to the solution when growing the larger crystal, but, insoluble with the solid sugar, all but small traces were forced to precipitate out as it grew. Crystallized sugar. Crystals on the right were grown from a sugar cube, while the left from a single seed crystal taken from the right. Red dye was added to the solution when growing the larger crystal, but, insoluble with the solid sugar, all but small traces were forced to precipitate out as it grew. See also Atomic packing factor Anticrystal Cocrystal Colloidal crystal Crystal growth Crystal oscillator Liquid crystal Time crystal References  Stephen Lower. "Chem1 online textbook—States of matter". Retrieved 2016-09-19.  Ashcroft and Mermin (1976). Solid State Physics.  κρύσταλλος, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library  κρύος, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library  "crys·tal". The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language. Retrieved 2023-06-17.  Regal, Brian. (2009). Pseudoscience: A Critical Encyclopedia. Greenwood. p. 51. ISBN 978-0-313-35507-3  Patti Wigington (31 August 2016). "Using Crystals and Gemstones in Magic". About.com. Archived from the original on 15 November 2016. Retrieved 14 November 2016.  "The Magic of Crystals and Gemstones". WitchesLore. 14 December 2011. Retrieved 14 November 2016.  Welberry, T. R, ed. (2021), International Tables for Crystallography, vol. A, Chester, England: International Union of Crystallography, doi:10.1107/97809553602060000001, ISBN 978-1-119-95235-0, S2CID 146060934  The surface science of metal oxides, by Victor E. Henrich, P. A. Cox, page 28, google books link  Sinkankas, John (1964). Mineralogy for amateurs. Princeton, N.J.: Van Nostrand. pp. 134–138. ISBN 0442276249.  G. Cressey and I. F. Mercer, (1999) Crystals, London, Natural History Museum, page 58   One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Flett, John Smith (1911). "Petrology". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 21 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.  Yoshinori Furukawa, "Ice"; Matti Leppäranta, "Sea Ice"; D.P. Dobhal, "Glacier"; and other articles in Vijay P. Singh, Pratap Singh, and Umesh K. Haritashya, eds., Encyclopedia of Snow, Ice and Glaciers (Dordrecht, NE: Springer Science & Business Media, 2011). ISBN 904812641X, 9789048126415  Libbrecht, Kenneth; Wing, Rachel (2015-09-01). The Snowflake: Winter's Frozen Artistry. Voyageur Press. ISBN 9781627887335.  Hjorth-Hansen, E. (2017-10-19). Snow Engineering 2000: Recent Advances and Developments. Routledge. ISBN 9781351416238.  Nucleation of Water: From Fundamental Science to Atmospheric and Additional Applications by Ari Laaksonen, Jussi Malila -- Elsevier 2022 Page 239--240  Shea, Neil (November 2008). "Cave of Crystal Giants". National Geographic Magazine. Archived from the original on Dec 19, 2017.  Britain), Science Research Council (Great (1972). Report of the Council. H.M. Stationery Office.  Encyclopedia of the Solar System by Tilman Spohn, Doris Breuer, Torrence V. Johnson -- Elsevier 2014 Page 632  [https://www.angelo.edu/faculty/kboudrea/general/formulas_nomenclature/Formulas_Nomenclature.htm#:~:text=Ionic%20compounds%20are%20(usually)%20formed,nonmetals%20react%20with%20each%20other. Angelo State University: Formulas and Nomenclature of Ionic and Covalent Compounds  Science for Conservators, Volume 3: Adhesives and Coatings by Museum and Galleries Commission -- Museum and Galleries Commission 2005 Page 57  International Union of Crystallography (1992). "Report of the Executive Committee for 1991". Acta Crystallogr. A. 48 (6): 922–946. doi:10.1107/S0108767392008328. PMC 1826680.  Steurer W. (2004). "Twenty years of structure research on quasicrystals. Part I. Pentagonal, octagonal, decagonal and dodecagonal quasicrystals". Z. Kristallogr. 219 (7–2004): 391–446. Bibcode:2004ZK....219..391S. doi:10.1524/zkri.219.7.391.35643.  "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2011". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2011-12-29. Further reading Crystal at Wikipedia's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Resources from Wikiversity Howard, J. Michael; Darcy Howard (Illustrator) (1998). "Introduction to Crystallography and Mineral Crystal Systems". Bob's Rock Shop. Archived from the original on 2006-08-26. Retrieved 2008-04-20. Krassmann, Thomas (2005–2008). "The Giant Crystal Project". Krassmann. Archived from the original on 2008-04-26. Retrieved 2008-04-20. "Teaching Pamphlets". Commission on Crystallographic Teaching. 2007. Archived from the original on 2008-04-17. Retrieved 2008-04-20. "Crystal Lattice Structures:Index by Space Group". 2004. Retrieved 2016-12-03. "Crystallography". Spanish National Research Council, Department of Crystallography. 2010. Retrieved 2010-01-08. vte Patterns in nature Patterns CrackDuneFoamMeanderParastichyPhyllotaxisSoap bubbleSymmetry in crystalsQuasicrystalsin flowersin biologyTessellationVortex streetWaveWidmanstätten pattern Causes Pattern formationBiology Natural selectionCamouflageMimicrySexual selectionMathematics Chaos theoryFractalLogarithmic spiralPhysics CrystalFluid dynamicsPlateau's lawsSelf-organization People PlatoPythagorasEmpedoclesFibonacci Liber AbaciAdolf ZeisingErnst HaeckelJoseph PlateauWilson BentleyD'Arcy Wentworth Thompson On Growth and FormAlan Turing The Chemical Basis of MorphogenesisAristid LindenmayerBenoît Mandelbrot How Long Is the Coast of Britain? Statistical Self-Similarity and Fractional Dimension Related Pattern recognitionEmergenceMathematics and art Authority control databases Edit this at Wikidata International FAST National SpainFranceBnF dataGermanyIsraelUnited StatesJapanCzech Republic Category: Crystals Crystal healing Article Talk Read Edit View history Tools From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Quartz crystals are often used in crystal healing. This article is part of a series on Alternative medicine General information Fringe medicine and science AcupressureAcupunctureAlkaline dietAnthroposophic medicineApitherapyApplied kinesiologyAromatherapyAssociation for Research and EnlightenmentAuriculotherapyBates methodBiological terrain assessmentBlack salveBodyworkBone-settingBowen techniqueBreathworkFake COVID-19 treatmentsCamel urineCancer treatmentsCharcoal cleanseChelation therapyChiropractic Chiropractic treatment techniquesVertebral subluxationChristian ScienceChromotherapyColloidal silverColon cleansing Coffee enemaColorpunctureConversion therapyCraniosacral therapyCrystal healingCupping therapyDental amalgam controversyDetoxification Foot detoxDry needlingEar candlingEnergy medicine CorreactologyEsoteric energyTherapeutic touchEstrogen dominanceFabunan Antiviral InjectionFacilitated communicationFeldenkrais MethodFunctional medicineHair analysisHerbal medicineHolistic dentistryHologram braceletHomeopathy Bach flower remediesHydrotherapyHypnotherapyIonized jewelryIridologyJilly JuiceLightning ProcessLymphotherapyMagnet therapyManual therapyMedical intuitiveMegavitamin therapyMesmerismMind–body interventionsMMSMyofascial releaseNAETNaturopathyOil pullingOrgoneOrthomolecular medicineOrthopathyOsteomyologyOsteopathyOzone therapyParapsychologyPhrenologyPostural IntegrationPsychic surgeryPsychodermatologyQuantum healingRadionicsRapid prompting methodReflexologyRBOPReikiRolfingScientific racismThetaHealingThought Field TherapyUrophagiaVaginal steamingVegetotherapyVision therapyVitalismYoung blood transfusionZero balancing Conspiracy theories Classifications Traditional medicine Diagnoses vte Crystal healing is a pseudoscientific alternative-medicine practice that uses semiprecious stones and crystals such as quartz, agate, amethyst or opal. Adherents of the practice claim that these have healing powers, but there is no scientific basis for this claim.[1][2][3] Practitioners of crystal healing believe they can boost low energy, prevent bad energy, release blocked energy, and transform a body's aura.[4] In one method, the practitioner places crystals on different parts of the body, often corresponding to chakras; or else the practitioner places crystals around the body in an attempt to construct an energy grid, which is purported to surround the client with healing energy. Scientific investigations have found no evidence that such "energy grids" actually exist, and there is no evidence that crystal healing has any greater effect upon the body than any other placebo. Where the practice is popular, it fosters commercial demand for crystals, which can result in environmental damage and exploitative child labor to mine the crystals.[5] History Origins In Plato's account of Atlantis, crystal healing is also mentioned. According to Plato, the Atlanteans used crystals to read minds and transmit thoughts.[6] The Sumerians purportedly used crystals in their magical formulas 6000 years ago.[7] Ancient Egyptians mined for crystals and used them to make jewelry. Crystals or gemstones were also used in practice, for their metaphysical properties. Specifically, they used crystals as aids for health and protection. They often would bury a lapis lazuli scarab with their deceased, with the belief that it would protect them in the afterlife.[8] Additionally, in Ancient Egypt amulets were used to ensure the well-being of the individual.[9] The amulet's shape, decoration, inscription, color, material, or ritual performed with the amulet dictated its power.[9] Amulets were worn or placed on the body, in the form of stones, piercings, rings, necklaces, or other jewelry.[9] The Egyptians used amulets to benefit their afterlife, often representing an Egyptian deity and their specific powers. Amulets were also placed on mummies or in between the mummy's bandages, with funerary pieces usually being larger than those worn by the living.[9] In funeral practices they also used headrest amulets, these were full-size headrests placed in tombs to protect the dead, they also symbolized the deceased rising and being revived, and the sun rising between two hills, which symbolized resurrection and rebirth.[9] The Ancient Greeks assigned a multitude of properties to crystals. The word 'crystal' is derived from the Greek word "krýstallos" which translates to "ice".[10] The Ancient Greeks believed that clear quartz crystals were a water that had frozen to the point where it would remain in its solid form.[11] The word "amethyst" in Ancient Greek language means "not intoxicate." Amethyst was worn as an amulet that they believed would aid hangovers or prevent intoxication.[8] John Dee's crystal, used for clairvoyance and healing, and supposedly given to him in November 1582 by the angel Uriel Precious stones have been thought of as objects that can aid in healing—in a practice known as lapidary medicine—by a variety of cultures.[12] The Hopi Native Americans of Arizona use quartz crystals to assist in diagnosing illnesses.[13] Both Pliny the Elder and Galen claimed that certain crystals had medicinal properties. In Europe, the belief in the healing powers of crystals (and in particular crystal amulets) persisted into the Middle Ages.[14][15] The alleged medicinal properties of precious stones, as well as other powers they were believed to hold, were collected in texts known as lapidaries, which remained popular in Medieval and Early Modern Europe until the 17th century. Across cultures, different stones can symbolize or provide aide for different things. An example of this is rose quartz. In Egypt, it was believed rose quartz could prevent aging, but the Romans used rose quartz as a seal to signify ownership, while in the Middle Ages it was used in healing potions, today rose quartz is known as the "love stone" and is used to balance emotions, and heal anger and disappointment.[16] Contemporary use New Age In the English speaking world, crystal healing is heavily associated with the New Age spiritual movement: "the middle-class New Age healing activity par excellence".[12] In contrast with other forms of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM), participants in crystal healing view the practice as "individuated",[17] that is dependent on extreme personalization and creative expression.[12][18] Practitioners of crystal healing purport that certain physical properties such as shape, color, and markings, determine the ailments that a stone can heal; lists of such links are published in commonly distributed texts.[18] Paradoxically, practitioners also "hold the view that crystals have no intrinsic qualities but that, instead, their quality changes according to both" participants.[18] After selecting the stones by color or their believed metaphysical qualities, they place them on parts of the body.[1] Color selection and placement of stones are done according to concepts of grounding, chakras, or energy grids. Sales and industry Worldwide, retail sales of crystals were estimated to amount to more than US$1 billion per year in 2019.[5][19] India, China, Brazil, and Madagascar are the main producers of crystals.[5] In Madagascar, one of the sources of crystals, most crystals are mined in unsafe, non-industrial or "homemade" mines, with parents and children working together to dig crystals from pits and tunnels they dig with shovels.[5] The miners are usually paid between 17 and 23 cents per kilogram for rose quartz (less than a penny per ounce).[5] The miner's income may be just 0.1% of the final retail price.[5] Some people in the industry say that the low pay for miners is because customers in developed countries want low retail prices; others say that it is due to shops in developed countries wanting to be more profitable.[5][19] Scientific evaluation There is no peer-reviewed scientific evidence that crystal healing has any effect; it is considered a pseudoscience.[1][20] Alleged successes of crystal healing can be attributed to the placebo effect.[3][20] Furthermore, there is no scientific basis for the concepts of chakras, being "blocked", energy grids requiring grounding, or other such terms; they are widely understood to be nothing more than terms used by adherents to lend credibility to their practices. Energy, as a scientific term, is a very well-defined concept that is readily measurable and bears little resemblance to the esoteric concept of energy used by proponents of crystal healing.[21] In 1999, researchers French and Williams conducted a study to investigate the power of crystals compared with a placebo. Eighty volunteers were asked to meditate with either a quartz crystal, or a placebo stone which was indistinguishable from quartz. Many of the participants reported feeling typical "crystal effects"; however, this was irrespective of whether the crystals were real or placebo. In 2001 Christopher French, head of the anomalistic psychology research unit at the University of London and colleagues from Goldsmiths College outlined their study of crystal healing at the British Psychological Society Centenary Annual Conference, concluding: "There is no evidence that crystal healing works over and above a placebo effect."[3] Crystal healing effects could also be attributed to confirmation bias (which occurs when the believers want the practice to be true and see only things that back up that desire).[22] Crystal healing techniques are also practiced on animals, although some veterinary organizations, such as the British Veterinary Association, have warned that these methods are not scientifically proven and state that people should seek the advice of a vet before using alternative techniques.[23] Crystal healing proponents and 5G conspiracy theorists have falsely alleged the pseudoscientific and misinformational belief that shungite may absorb 5G radiation.[24][25][26][27][28] See also Color healing Energy medicine List of topics characterized as pseudoscience Magnet therapy References  Regal, Brian. (2009). Pseudoscience: A Critical Encyclopedia. Greenwood. p. 51. ISBN 978-0-313-35507-3  Carroll, Robert Todd. "Crystal Power". The Skeptic's Dictionary. Archived from the original on January 11, 2012. Retrieved January 14, 2012.  "Live Science". Live Science. June 23, 2017. Archived from the original on May 14, 2020. Retrieved July 29, 2018.  "Crystal Therapy". Archived from the original on February 14, 2020. Retrieved November 24, 2020.  McClure, Tess (September 17, 2019). "Dark crystals: the brutal reality behind a booming wellness craze". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on May 15, 2020. Retrieved September 25, 2019.  Sagan, Carl (1997). The Demon-Haunted World. Headline Book Publishing. p. 20. ISBN 0-7472-5156-8.  Palermo, Elizabeth (June 23, 2017). "Crystal Healing: Stone-Cold Facts About Gemstone Treatments". livescience.com. Archived from the original on May 14, 2020. Retrieved October 19, 2020.  "Connecting with Ancient Egypt". Crystal Life. July 23, 2015. Archived from the original on October 21, 2020. Retrieved October 19, 2020.  "Ancient Egyptian Amulets". Archived from the original on November 23, 2020. Retrieved November 24, 2020.  "crystal | Origin and meaning of crystal by Online Etymology Dictionary". www.etymonline.com. Archived from the original on October 21, 2020. Retrieved October 19, 2020.  Shashkevich, Alex (August 9, 2018). "Stanford scholar tackles the history of people's obsession with crystals". Stanford News. Stanford University. Archived from the original on January 25, 2021. Retrieved January 26, 2021.  McClean, Stuart (2010). "Crystal and spiritual healing in northern England: Folk-inspired systems of medicine". Folk Healing and Health Care Practices in Britain and Ireland: Stethoscopes, Wands, and Crystals. Berghahn Books. ISBN 9781845456726. Retrieved August 14, 2017.  Grant, Richard Earl (1982). "Tuuhikya: The Hopi Healer". American Indian Quarterly. 6 (3/4): 293, 301. doi:10.2307/1183643. JSTOR 1183643. PMID 11614178.  "Early Medieval Crystal Amulets: Secular Instruments of Protection and Healing." Medievalists.net, June 29, 2011. http://www.medievalists.net/2011/06/early-medieval-crystal-amulets-secular-instruments-of-protection-and-healing/ Archived October 19, 2021, at the Wayback Machine.  "Symbolic Virtues of Gems." Dress, Jewels, Arms and Coat of Arms: Material Culture and Self-Representation in the Late Middle Ages. Central European University. Accessed September 13, 2019. http://web.ceu.hu/medstud/manual/SRM/symbol.htm Archived October 24, 2018, at the Wayback Machine.  "Rose Quartz History and Lore". Archived from the original on November 26, 2020. Retrieved November 24, 2020.  McClean, Stuart (August 3, 2005). "'The illness is part of the person': discourses of blame, individual responsibility and individuation at a centre for spiritual healing in the North of England". Sociology of Health and Illness. 27 (5): 628–648. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9566.2005.00459.x. PMID 16078904.  McClean, Stuart; Shaw, Alison (July 1, 2005). "From Schism to Continuum? The Problematic Relationship Between Expert and Lay Knowledge—An Exploratory Conceptual Synthesis of Two Qualitative Studies". Qualitative Health Research. 15 (6): 729–749. doi:10.1177/1049732304273927. PMID 15961872. S2CID 37051800. Retrieved August 14, 2017.  Wiseman, Eva (June 16, 2019). "Are crystals the new blood diamonds?". The Guardian. Guardian News & Media Limited. Archived from the original on February 25, 2021. Retrieved January 26, 2021.  Spellman, Frank R; Price-Bayer, Joni. (2010). In Defense of Science: Why Scientific Literacy Matters. The Scarecrow Press. p. 81. ISBN 978-1-60590-735-2 "There is no scientific evidence that crystal healing has any effect. It has been called a pseudoscience. Pleasant feelings or the apparent successes of crystal healing can be attributed to the placebo effect or cognitive bias—a believer wanting it to be true."  Stenger, Victor J. (May 8, 2016). "The Energy Fields of Life". Archived from the original on May 8, 2016. Retrieved July 29, 2018.  Campion, E.W. (1993). "Why unconventional medicine?". The New England Journal of Medicine. 328 (4): 282–3. doi:10.1056/NEJM199301283280413. PMID 8418412.  "Warning about animal 'therapies'". BBC News. February 12, 2008.  Tiffany, Kaitlyn (May 13, 2020). "Something in the Air". The Atlantic. ISSN 1072-7825. Archived from the original on July 1, 2020. Retrieved July 4, 2020.  Koetsier, John (May 28, 2020). "$350 '5G Bioshield' Radiation Protection Device Is A ... $6 USB Stick". Forbes.com. Archived from the original on May 27, 2021. Retrieved May 27, 2021. Other recommendations from Glastonbury? People should use Shungite, a mineral which is said to have healing powers that one "healing crystal" company says "span the board from purity to protection.  Bucci, Nino (October 30, 2020). "Conspiracy theorists forced to apologise for calling Victorian youth leader a Covid 'crisis actor'". The Guardian. Archived from the original on May 27, 2021. Retrieved May 27, 2021. Fernandez claims Facebook warned him his account would be restricted for posting misinformation to his page, which he also uses to promote cryptocurrency opportunities and sell shungite, a crystal which he claims prevents the effects of 5G.  Song, Victoria (March 3, 2021). "5G Conspiracy Theories Are Fueling an Entire Economy of Scammy Gadgets". Gizmodo. Archived from the original on May 27, 2021. Retrieved May 27, 2021. There isn't much scientific evidence backing these claims, and researching shungite primarily brings up New Age-y articles spewing quackery, with no citations to actual studies or research. The 5G stickers supposedly generate some kind of shield to protect you from 5G waves. Let us be clear: A sticker that claims to generate any type of radiation-blocking shield is pure science fiction.  McGowan, Michael (February 24, 2021). "How the wellness and influencer crowd serve conspiracies to the masses". The Guardian. Archived from the original on June 9, 2021. Retrieved May 27, 2021. [Fernandez] flits between long screeds about vaccinations and claims that Covid-19 is a hoax to selling products that he claims protect users from electromagnetic fields that conspiracy theorists believe are emitted by 5G towers. A shungite pyramid crystal will protect a radius of "approximately 6–7 metres", his website claims, and costs $226, reduced from $256. Further reading Lawrence E. Jerome. (1989). Crystal Power: The Ultimate Placebo Effect. Prometheus Books. ISBN 978-0-87975-514-0 External links Crystal Healing: Stone-cold Facts About Gemstone Treatments – LiveScience Do You Know Where Your Healing Crystals Come From? at The New Republic James Randi debunks Crystal Power vte New Age movement Culture New Age communitiesNew-age music AndeanBiomusicNeoclassicalProgressive electronicSpace musicNew Age travellers Groups Association for Research and EnlightenmentEsalen InstituteThe FamilyNew World Alliance Influences Hippie subcultureHuman Potential MovementHunaIntegral theoryOccultismSeth MaterialSpiritismSpiritualismSpiritualityTheosophyTranspersonal psychologyUFO religionWestern esotericism Proponents José ArgüellesRichard BachAlice BaileyGuy BallardAnnie BesantGregg BradenJames BrennanRhonda ByrneEileen CaddyLee CarrollCarlos CastanedaEdgar CayceDeepak ChopraPaulo CoelhoBenjamin CremeMarilyn FergusonGandalfShakti GawainLinda GoodmanAlex GreyMichael HarnerAndrew HarveyDavid IckeMax Freedom LongShirley MacLaineMaharishi Mahesh YogiMichael MirdadClaudio NaranjoLeonard OrrRam DassJames RedfieldJane RobertsWalter RussellMark SatinDavid SpanglerHerbert SutcliffeEckhart TolleNeale Donald WalschKen WilberStuart WildeMarianne Williamson Themes Age of AquariusAlternative medicineAnimismAstrologyAstrotheologyAuraCreative visualizationCrystal healingEarth ChangesEarth mysteriesEnergyFeng shuiGaianismHigher consciousnessIndigo childrenLaw of attractionMediumshipMichael TeachingsNeopaganismNeoshamanismNeotantraQuantum mysticismReligious pluralism vte Alternative medicine Systems AyurvedaAromatherapyBodyworkChiropracticEnergy medicineFaith healingHerbalismHydrotherapyHomeopathyNaturopathic medicineOrthopathyOsteopathyShamanismTraditional Chinese medicineTraditional medicine People Mind-body intervention advocatesCritics Treatments Biologically based therapyEnergy therapyManual and body-based methodsMind-body intervention Public-health issues Dental amalgamsGrowth hormoneVaccinesWater fluoridation Key terms Alternative medicineComplementary medicineGlossary of alternative medicinePseudoscienceSkeptical movement Contrary viewpoints Evidence-based medicineAnti-quackery organizations vte Pseudoscience List of topics characterized as pseudoscience Terminology Cargo cult scienceCharlatanCrankFringe theory Fringe sciencePseudoarchaeologyPseudohistoryPseudomathematicsJunk scienceParanormalPathological scienceQuackerySnake oilSuperseded scientific theoryTrue-believer syndromeVoodoo Science Topics characterized as pseudoscience Medicine AcupunctureAromatherapyAdrenal fatigueAlternative medicineAnthroposophic medicineApplied kinesiologyAyurvedaBates methodBiorhythmsBloodlettingBody memoryChiropracticChromotherapyCorreactologyCryonicsCrystal healingCuppingDetoxification Colon cleansingDoctrine of signaturesDoktor Koster's AntigaspillsEar candlingElectromagnetic hypersensitivityEnergy medicineFad dietGerm theory denialismHIV/AIDS denialismHomeopathyHumorismIridologyLeaky gut syndromeLunar effectMacrobiotic dietMagnet therapyMiracle Mineral SupplementNaturopathyPalmistryPanchagavyaPatent medicinePhrenologyPrimal therapyRadionicsReikiTraditional medicine Traditional Chinese medicineTrepanningVertebral subluxationWind turbine syndrome Social science 2012 phenomenonAncient astronautsCatastrophismConspiracy theory 5G conspiracy9/11 conspiracy theoriesChemtrail conspiracy theoryClimate change denialCOVID-19 misinformationMoon landing conspiracy theoriesConversion therapyGenerational theory GenerationismStrauss–Howe generational theoryHollow Earth theoryIndigo childrenJaphetic theoryMediumshipNazi archaeologyNibiru cataclysmParapsychologyPseudoarchaeologyPseudohistory Genocide denialHistorical negationismHolocaust denialPseudolawRecovered-memory therapy Past life regressionScientific racism Aryan raceMelanin theoryMyers–Briggs Type IndicatorEnneagram of Personality Physics Anti-gravity‎Cold fusion‎Faster-than-light travel‎Perpetual motion‎Quantum mysticismReactionless drive Dean driveEMDriveTeleportation‎Tractor beamWater-fueled car Other AlchemyAquatic ape hypothesisAstrologyBiodynamic agricultureBiological transmutationCreation scienceCryptozoologyDianetics AuditingDowsingElectronic voice phenomenonEugenicsFacilitated communicationFeng shuiFlat Earth theoryGraphologyIntelligent designLaundry ballLaw of attractionLevitationLysenkoismNumerologyOrgonePolygraphPseudoscientific metrologyRapid prompting methodStatement analysisUfologyVoice stress analysisWater memory Promoters of pseudoscience Sucharit BhakdiDel BigtreeIgor and Grichka BogdanoffBrigitte BoisselierRhonda ByrneRobert CharrouxDeepak ChopraClonaidVernon ColemanIgnatius L. DonnellyGaia, Inc.Max GersonNicholas GonzalezGoop (company)Graham HancockDavid IckeWilliam Donald KelleyRobert F. Kennedy JrCorentin Louis KervranThe Light (newspaper)Mike LindellJenny McCarthyJoseph MercolaMinistry of AyushTheodor MorellHans Alfred NieperMehmet OzRaël (Claude Vorilhon)Randolph StonePaul Joseph WatsonAndrew Wakefield Related topics Bogdanov affairBourgeois pseudoscienceDemarcation problemScientific methodSuppressed research in the Soviet Union Resources Committee for Skeptical InquiryCults of UnreasonAn Encyclopedia of Claims, Frauds, and Hoaxes of the Occult and SupernaturalFads and Fallacies in the Name of ScienceFortean TimesJREFQuackwatchSkeptical InquirerThe Natural History of QuackeryThe Psychology of the OccultThe Ragged Edge of ScienceThe Skeptic Encyclopedia of PseudoscienceThe Skeptic's Dictionary vte Religious Science/Science of Mind Beliefs Spiritual mind treatment Founder Ernest Holmes Notable ministers Fenwicke HolmesRaymond Charles BarkerStuart GraysonLouise HayMichael BeckwithJoseph MurphyJean HoustonTerry Cole-WhittakerWilliam Hornaday Largest groups Centers for Spiritual LivingSeicho-no-IeAffiliated New Thought NetworkGlobal Religious Science Ministries Influences Ralph Waldo EmersonEmma Curtis HopkinsThomas TrowardMary Baker EddyPhineas QuimbyEmmet FoxChurch of Divine Science Other New ThoughtThe Science of MindScience of Mind Authority control databases: National Edit this at Wikidata Czech Republic Categories: Energy therapiesPseudoscienceCrystalsSupernatural healingGemstones in culture Tiger's eye Article Talk Read Edit View history Tools From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This article is about the gemstone. For the horse eye color, see Tiger eye. For the short story, see The Tiger's Eye. For the characters in the Sailor Moon series, see Amazon Trio. Not to be confused with Tiger Eyes. Not to be confused with Eye of the Tiger. Tiger's eye A polished reddish brown stone which is bisected by a band containing golden fibers General Category Mineral Formula (repeating unit) Silica (silicon dioxide, SiO2) Identification Colour golden to red-brown Mohs scale hardness 6.5-7 Luster Silky Specific gravity 2.64–2.71 Tiger's eye (also called tiger eye) is a chatoyant gemstone that is usually a metamorphic rock with a golden to red-brown colour and a silky lustre. As members of the quartz group, tiger's eye and the related blue-coloured mineral hawk's eye gain their silky, lustrous appearance from the parallel intergrowth of quartz crystals and altered amphibole fibres that have mostly turned into limonite.[1][2] Other forms of tiger's eye Tiger iron is an altered rock composed chiefly of tiger's eye, red jasper and black hematite. The undulating, contrasting bands of colour and lustre make for an attractive motif and it is mainly used for jewellery-making and ornamentation. Tiger iron is a popular ornamental material used in a variety of applications, from beads to knife hilts. Tiger iron is mined primarily in South Africa and Western Australia. Tiger's eye is composed chiefly of silicon dioxide (SiO 2) and is coloured mainly by iron oxide. The specific gravity ranges from 2.64 to 2.71.[3] It is formed by the alteration of crocidolite. Serpentine deposits in the US states of Arizona and California can have chatoyant bands of chrysotile, a form of asbestos, fibres. These have been cut and sold as "Arizona tiger-eye" and "California tiger's eye" gemstones.[4][5] The trade name 'pietersite' is used for a fractured or brecciated chalcedony containing amphibole fibers and promoted as tiger's eye from Namibia and China.[6] "Photograph of the surface of a stone which shows horizontal alternating bands of red and black with a band of golden-colored fibers in a band across the center" Tiger iron "A photograph of a green stone with a pink fibrous band going across the surface diagonally" Serpentine tiger's eye from Arizona Sources Common sources of tiger's eye include Australia, Burma, India, Namibia, South Africa, the United States,[7] Brazil, Canada, China, Korea and Spain.[citation needed] "Photograph of a chunk of rock containing horizontal bands which contain golden fibers which are positioned vertically within the bands" Unpolished tiger's eye from South Africa Cultural associations In some parts of the world, the stone is believed to ward off the evil eye.[8] Roman soldiers wore engraved tigers eye to protect them in battle. Cut, treatment and imitation Gems are usually given a cabochon cut to best display their chatoyance. Red stones are developed by gentle heat treatments. Dark stones are artificially lightened to improve colour using a nitric acid treatment.[9] "Photograph of a polished ovoid stone with bands containing shimmering golden fibers" Oval shape tiger's eye with iron stripes Blue tiger's eye Honey-coloured stones have been used to imitate the more valued cat's eye chrysoberyl, cymophane, but the overall effect is often unconvincing. Artificial fibre optic glass is a common imitation of tiger's eye, and is produced in a wide range of colours. References  "Tiger's Eye". mindat.org. Retrieved 16 May 2016.  Heaney, Peter; Fisher, Donald (April 2003). "New interpretation of the origin of tiger's-eye". Geology. 31 (4): 323–326. Bibcode:2003Geo....31..323H. doi:10.1130/0091-7613(2003)031<0323:NIOTOO>2.0.CO;2.  Listing of SG of gems and gem simulants Archived 2006-09-04 at the Wayback Machine, Berkeley.edu  Flagg, Arthur Leonard (1958). Mineralogical Journeys in Arizona. Scottsdale: F.H. Bitner. pp. 92–93.  USGS (1908–1909). "Cat's Eye or Tiger-Eye". Mineral Resources of the United States / Department of the Interior, United States Geological Survey. Washington, D.C.: US Government Printing Office. 2: 802.  Pietersite on Mindat.org  Schumann, Walter (2009). Gemstones of the World (Fourth ed.). New York, New York: Sterling Publishing. p. 140. ISBN 978-1-4027-6829-3.  The Encyclopedia of Superstitions By Richard Webster, p.257  O'Donoghue, Michael (1997). Synthetic, Imitation, and Treated Gemstones. Boston, Massachusetts: Butterworth-Heinemann. pp. 125–127. ISBN 0-7506-3173-2. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Tiger's eye. "New interpretation of the origin of tiger's-eye: Comment and Reply". doi:10.1130/0091-7613-32.1.e45. vte Jewellery Forms AnkletBarretteBelly chainBelt buckleBindiBolo tieBraceletBroochChatelaineCollar pinCrownCufflinkEarringFerronnièreGenitalLapel pinNecklaceNeck ringPectoralPendantRingTiaraTie chainTie clipTie pinToe ringWatch pocketstrap Making People Bench jewelerClockmakerGoldsmithJewellery designerLapidaristSilversmithWatchmaker Processes CarvingCasting centrifugallost-waxvacuumEnamelingEngravingFiligreeKazaziyeMetal clayPlatingPolishingRepoussé and chasingSolderingStonesettingWire sculptureWire wrapped jewelry Tools Draw plateFileHammerMandrelPliers Materials Precious metals GoldPalladiumPlatinumRhodiumSilver Precious metal alloys Britannia silverColored goldCrown goldElectrumShakudōShibuichiSterling silver ArgentiumTumbaga Base metals BrassBronzeCopperMokume-ganeNickel silver (alpacca)PewterPinchbeckStainless steelTitaniumTungsten Mineral gemstones AgateAmazoniteAmethystAventurineBeryl (red)CarnelianChrysoberylChrysocollaDiamondDiopsideEmeraldFluoriteGarnetHowliteJadeJasperKyaniteLabradoriteLapis lazuliLarimarMalachiteMarcasiteMoonstoneObsidianOnyxOpalPeridotPrasioliteQuartz (smoky)RubySapphireSodaliteSpinelSunstoneTanzaniteTiger's eyeTopazTourmalineTurquoiseVarisciteZircon Organic gemstones AbaloneAmberAmmoliteCopalCoral BlackPreciousIvoryJetNacreOperculumPearlTortoiseshell Other natural objects BezoarBog-woodEbonite (vulcanite)Gutta-perchaHairShell Spondylus shellToadstone Terms Art jewelryCarat (mass)Carat (purity)FindingFineness Related topicsBody piercingFashionGemologyMetalworkingPhaleristicsWearable art vte Silica minerals Crystalline CoesiteCristobaliteKeatiteMoganiteQuartzSeifertiteStishoviteTridymite Cryptocrystalline ChalcedonyChertFlintJasper Amorphous FulguriteLechatelieriteOpal Miscellaneous Tiger's eyeAqeeq Notable varieties Chalcedony AgateCarnelianChrome chalcedonyChrysopraseHeliotropeMoss agateOnyx Opal FioriteGeyserite Quartz AmethystAmetrineHerkimer diamondSmoky quartzShocked quartzPrasiolite  Minerals portal Category: Quartz gemstones Obsidian Article Talk Read View source View history Tools Page semi-protected From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia For other uses, see Obsidian (disambiguation). Obsidian General Category Volcanic glass Identification Color usually black; sometimes green or brown; rarely yellow, orange, red or blue[1] Fracture Conchoidal Mohs scale hardness 5–6[2] Luster Vitreous Specific gravity c. 2.4[3] Optical properties Translucent Other characteristics Texture: Smooth; glassy References [4] Obsidian (/əbˈsɪdi.ən, ɒb-/)[5] is a naturally occurring volcanic glass formed when lava extruded from a volcano cools rapidly with minimal crystal growth. It is an igneous rock.[6] Obsidian is produced from felsic lava, rich in the lighter elements such as silicon, oxygen, aluminium, sodium, and potassium. It is commonly found within the margins of rhyolitic lava flows known as obsidian flows. These flows have a high content of silica, granting them a high viscosity. The high viscosity inhibits diffusion of atoms through the lava, which inhibits the first step (nucleation) in the formation of mineral crystals. Together with rapid cooling, this results in a natural glass forming from the lava.[7] Obsidian is hard, brittle, and amorphous; it therefore fractures with sharp edges. In the past, it was used to manufacture cutting and piercing tools, and it has been used experimentally as surgical scalpel blades.[8] Origin and properties Obsidian talus at Obsidian Dome, California Polished snowflake obsidian, formed through the inclusion of cristobalite crystals The Natural History by the Roman writer Pliny the Elder includes a few sentences about a volcanic glass called obsidian (lapis obsidianus), discovered in Ethiopia by Obsidius, a Roman explorer.[9][10][11][12] Obsidian is formed from quickly cooled lava, which is the parent material.[13][14][15] Extrusive formation of obsidian may occur when felsic lava cools rapidly at the edges of a felsic lava flow or volcanic dome, or when lava cools during sudden contact with water or air. Intrusive formation of obsidian may occur when felsic lava cools along the edges of a dike.[16][17] Tektites were once thought by many to be obsidian produced by lunar volcanic eruptions,[18] though few scientists now adhere to this hypothesis.[19] Obsidian is mineral-like, but not a true mineral because, as a glass, it is not crystalline; in addition, its composition is too variable to be classified as a mineral. It is sometimes classified as a mineraloid.[20] Though obsidian is usually dark in color, similar to mafic rocks such as basalt, the composition of obsidian is extremely felsic. Obsidian consists mainly of SiO2 (silicon dioxide), usually 70% by weight or more. Crystalline rocks with a similar composition include granite and rhyolite. Because obsidian is metastable at the Earth's surface (over time the glass devitrifies, becoming fine-grained mineral crystals), obsidian older than Miocene in age is rare. Exceptionally old obsidians include a Cretaceous welded tuff and a partially devitrified Ordovician perlite.[21] This transformation of obsidian is accelerated by the presence of water. Although newly formed obsidian has a low water content, typically less than 1% water by weight,[22] it becomes progressively hydrated when exposed to groundwater, forming perlite. Pure obsidian is usually dark in appearance, though the color varies depending on the impurities present. Iron and other transition elements may give the obsidian a dark brown to black color. Most black obsidians contain nanoinclusions of magnetite, an iron oxide.[23] Very few samples of obsidian are nearly colorless. In some stones, the inclusion of small, white, radially clustered crystals (spherulites) of the mineral cristobalite in the black glass produce a blotchy or snowflake pattern (snowflake obsidian). Obsidian may contain patterns of gas bubbles remaining from the lava flow, aligned along layers created as the molten rock was flowing before being cooled. These bubbles can produce interesting effects such as a golden sheen (sheen obsidian). An iridescent, rainbow-like sheen (fire obsidian) is caused by inclusions of magnetite nanoparticles creating thin-film interference.[24] Colorful, striped obsidian (rainbow obsidian) from Mexico contains oriented nanorods of hedenbergite, which cause the rainbow striping effects by thin-film interference.[23] Occurrence Glass Mountain, a large obsidian flow at Medicine Lake Volcano in California Obsidian is found near volcanoes in locations which have undergone rhyolitic eruptions. It can be found in Argentina, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Australia,[25] Canada, Chile, Georgia, Ecuador, El Salvador, Greece, Guatemala, Hungary, Iceland, Indonesia, Italy, Japan, Kenya, Mexico, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Peru, Russia, Scotland, the Canary Islands, Turkey and the United States. Obsidian flows which may be hiked on[clarification needed] are found within the calderas of Newberry Volcano and Medicine Lake Volcano in the Cascade Range of western North America, and at Inyo Craters east of the Sierra Nevada in California. Yellowstone National Park has a mountainside containing obsidian located between Mammoth Hot Springs and the Norris Geyser Basin, and deposits can be found in many other western U.S. states including Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, Texas, Utah, and Washington,[26] Oregon[27] and Idaho. There are only four major deposit areas in the central Mediterranean: Lipari, Pantelleria, Palmarola and Monte Arci (Sardinia).[28] Ancient sources in the Aegean were Milos and Gyali.[29] Acıgöl town and the Göllü Dağ volcano were the most important sources in central Anatolia, one of the more important source areas in the prehistoric Near East.[30][31][32] Prehistoric and historical use Obsidian arrowhead The first known archaeological evidence of usage was in Kariandusi (Kenya) and other sites of the Acheulian age (beginning 1.5 million years BP) dated 700,000 BC, although only very few objects have been found at these sites relative to the Neolithic.[33][34][35][36][37] Manufacture of obsidian bladelets at Lipari had reached a high level of sophistication by the late Neolithic, and was traded as far as Sicily, the southern Po river valley, and Croatia.[38] Obsidian bladelets were used in ritual circumcisions and cutting of umbilical cords of newborns.[39] Anatolian sources of obsidian are known to have been the material used in the Levant and modern-day Iraqi Kurdistan from a time beginning sometime about 12,500 BC.[40] Obsidian artifacts are common at Tell Brak, one of the earliest Mesopotamian urban centers, dating to the late fifth millennium BC.[41] Obsidian was valued in Stone Age cultures because, like flint, it could be fractured to produce sharp blades or arrowheads in a process called knapping. Like all glass and some other naturally occurring rocks, obsidian breaks with a characteristic conchoidal fracture. It was also polished to create early mirrors. Modern archaeologists have developed a relative dating system, obsidian hydration dating, to calculate the age of obsidian artifacts. Europe Obsidian artifacts first appeared in the European continent in Central Europe in the Middle Paleolithic and had become common by the Upper Paleolithic, although there are exceptions to this. Obsidian played an important role in the transmission of Neolithic knowledge and experiences. The material was mainly used for production of chipped tools which were very sharp due to its nature. Artifacts made of obsidian can be found in many Neolithic cultures across Europe. The source of obsidian for cultures inhabiting the territory of and around Greece was the island of Milos; the Starčevo–Körös–Criș culture obtained obsidian from sources in Hungary and Slovakia, while the Cardium-Impresso cultural complex acquired obsidian from the island outcrops of the central Mediterranean. Through trade, these artifacts ended up in lands thousands of kilometers away from the original source; this indicates that they were a highly valued commodity.[42] John Dee had a mirror, made of obsidian, which was brought from Mexico to Europe between 1527 and 1530 after Hernando Cortés's conquest of the region.[43] Middle East and Asia Obsidian tools from Tilkitepe, Turkey, 5th millennium BC. Museum of Anatolian Civilizations In the Ubaid in the 5th millennium BC, blades were manufactured from obsidian extracted from outcrops located in modern-day Turkey.[44] Ancient Egyptians used obsidian imported from the eastern Mediterranean and southern Red Sea regions. In the eastern Mediterranean area the material was used to make tools, mirrors and decorative objects.[45] The use of obsidian tools was present in Japan near areas of volcanic activity.[46][47] Obsidian was mined during the Jōmon period. Obsidian has also been found in Gilat, a site in the western Negev in Israel. Eight obsidian artifacts dating to the Chalcolithic Age found at this site were traced to obsidian sources in Anatolia. Neutron activation analysis (NAA) on the obsidian found at this site helped to reveal trade routes and exchange networks previously unknown.[48] Americas See also: Obsidian use in Mesoamerica Obsidian worked into plates and other wares by Victor Lopez Pelcastre of Nopalillo, Epazoyucan, Hidalgo. On display at the Museo de Arte Popular, Mexico City. Lithic analysis helps to understand pre-Hispanic groups in Mesoamerica. A careful analysis of obsidian in a culture or place can be of considerable use to reconstruct commerce, production, and distribution, and thereby understand economic, social and political aspects of a civilization. This is the case in Yaxchilán, a Maya city where even warfare implications have been studied linked with obsidian use and its debris.[49] Another example is the archeological recovery at coastal Chumash sites in California, indicating considerable trade with the distant site of Casa Diablo Hot Springs in the Sierra Nevada.[50] Raw obsidian and obsidian blades from the Mayan site of Takalik Abaj Pre-Columbian Mesoamericans' use of obsidian was extensive and sophisticated; including carved and worked obsidian for tools and decorative objects. Mesoamericans also made a type of sword with obsidian blades mounted in a wooden body. Called a macuahuitl, the weapon could inflict terrible injuries, combining the sharp cutting edge of an obsidian blade with the ragged cut of a serrated weapon. The polearm version of this weapon was called tepoztopilli. Obsidian mirrors were used by some Aztec priests to conjure visions and make prophecies. They were connected with Tezcatlipoca, god of obsidian and sorcery, whose name can be translated from the Nahuatl language as 'Smoking Mirror'.[43] Obsidian imported from Milos, found in Minoan Crete Indigenous people traded obsidian throughout the Americas. Each volcano and in some cases each volcanic eruption produces a distinguishable type of obsidian allowing archaeologists to use methods such as non-destructive energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence to select minor element compositions from both the artifact and geological sample to trace the origins of a particular artifact.[51] Similar tracing techniques have also allowed obsidian in Greece to be identified as coming from Milos, Nisyros or Gyali, islands in the Aegean Sea. Obsidian cores and blades were traded great distances inland from the coast.[52] In Chile obsidian tools from Chaitén Volcano have been found as far away as in Chan-Chan 400 km (250 mi) north of the volcano, and also in sites 400 km south of it.[53][54] Oceania The Lapita culture, active across a large area of the Pacific Ocean around 1000 BC, made widespread use of obsidian tools and engaged in long distance obsidian trading. The complexity of the production technique for these tools, and the care taken in their storage, may indicate that beyond their practical use they were associated with prestige or high status.[55] Obsidian was also used on Rapa Nui (Easter Island) for edged tools such as Mataia and the pupils of the eyes of their Moai (statues), which were encircled by rings of bird bone.[56] Obsidian was used to inscribe the Rongorongo glyphs. Current use Obsidian can be used to make extremely sharp knives, and obsidian blades are a type of glass knife made using naturally occurring obsidian instead of manufactured glass. Obsidian is used by some surgeons for scalpel blades, although this is not approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for use on humans.[57] Well-crafted obsidian blades, like any glass knife, can have a cutting edge many times sharper than high-quality steel surgical scalpels: the cutting edge of the blade is only about three nanometers thick.[58] All metal knives have a jagged, irregular blade when viewed under a strong enough microscope; however, obsidian blades are still smooth, even when examined under an electron microscope.[59] One study found that obsidian incisions produced fewer inflammatory cells and less granulation tissue in a group of rats after seven days but the differences disappeared after twenty-one days.[60] Don Crabtree has produced surgical obsidian blades and written articles on the subject.[58] Obsidian scalpels may be purchased for surgical use on research animals.[61] The major disadvantage of obsidian blades is their brittleness compared to those made of metal,[62] thus limiting the surgical applications for obsidian blades to a variety of specialized uses where this is not a concern.[58] Pig carved in snowflake obsidian, 10 centimeters (4 in) long. The markings are spherulites. Obsidian is also used for ornamental purposes and as a gemstone.[63] It presents a different appearance depending on how it is cut: in one direction it is jet black, while in another it is glistening gray. "Apache tears" are small rounded obsidian nuggets often embedded within a grayish-white perlite matrix. Plinths for audio turntables have been made of obsidian since the 1970s, such as the grayish-black SH-10B3 plinth by Technics. See also Apache tears – Popular term for pebbles of obsidian Helenite – Artificial glass made from volcanic ash Hyaloclastite – Volcaniclastic accumulation or breccia and tachylite – volcanic glasses with basaltic composition Knapping – Shaping of conchoidal fracturing stone to manufacture stone tools Libyan desert glass – Desert glass found in Libya and Egypt Mayor Island / Tūhua – New Zealand shield volcano – a source of Māori obsidian tools Obsidian hydration dating – Geochemical dating method Stone tool – Any tool, partially or entirely, made out of stone Vitrophyre – Glassy volcanic rock Yaxchilan Lintel 24 – Ancient Maya limestone carving from Yaxchilan in modern Chiapas, Mexico – Ancient carving showing a Maya bloodlet ritual involving a rope with obsidian shards. References  King, Hobart M. "Obsidian". Geology.com. Retrieved 3 February 2023.  Peter Roger Stuart Moorey (1999). Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and Industries: the archaeological evidence. Eisenbrauns. pp. 108–. ISBN 978-1-57506-042-2.  Ericson, J.E.; Makishima, A.; Mackenzie, J.D.; Berger, R. (January 1975). "Chemical and physical properties of obsidian: a naturally occurring [sic] glass". Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids. 17 (1): 129–142. Bibcode:1975JNCS...17..129E. doi:10.1016/0022-3093(75)90120-9.  Obsidian, Mindat.org  "obsidian". Dictionary.com Unabridged (Online). n.d.  Rafferty, John P. (2012). Rocks (1st ed.). New York, NY: Britannica Educational Pub. in association with Rosen Educational Services. p. 97. ISBN 9781615304929.  Raymond, Loren A. (1995). Petrology : the study of igneous, sedimentary, metamorphic rocks. Dubuque, IA: Wm. C. Brown. p. 27. ISBN 0697001903.  Brian Cotterell; Johan Kamminga (1992). Mechanics of pre-industrial technology: an introduction to the mechanics of ancient and traditional material culture. Cambridge University Press. pp. 127–. ISBN 978-0-521-42871-2. Retrieved 9 September 2011.  Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, vol. III, p. 2 ("Obsidius").  obsidian. The Concise Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology. Oxford University Press (1996). Retrieved 2011-11-20.  D Harper. obsidian. Etymology online. 2012-06-17  M H Manser. The Facts On File Dictionary of Allusions. Infobase Publishing, 2008, ISBN 0816071055.  M E Malainey. A Consumer's Guide to Archaeological Science: Analytical Techniques, Springer, 2010 ISBN 1441957030  P L Barnes-Svarney; T E Svarney (2004). The Handy Geology Answer Book. Visible Ink Press. p. 123. ISBN 978-1578591565.  M Martini; M Milazzo; M Piacentini; Società Italiana di Fisica (2004). Physics Methods in Archaeometry. Vol. 154. IOS Press. ISBN 978-1586034245.  Putnam, William C. (1938). "The Mono Craters, California". Geographical Review. 28 (1): 68–82. Bibcode:1938GeoRv..28...68P. doi:10.2307/210567. JSTOR 210567. S2CID 163772761.  Binder, Didier; Gratuze, Bernard; Mouralis, Damase; Balkan-Atlı, Nur (1 December 2011). "New investigations of the Göllüdağ obsidian lava flows system: a multi-disciplinary approach". Journal of Archaeological Science. 38 (12): 3174–3184. Bibcode:2011JArSc..38.3174B. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2011.05.014.  O'Keefe, John A. (1978). "The Tektite Problem". Scientific American. Munn & Company. 239 (2): 116–127. Bibcode:1978SciAm.239b.116O. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0878-116. JSTOR 24960359.  Sevigny, Melissa L. (2016). Under desert skies : how Tucson mapped the way to the Moon and planets. Tucson: Sentinel Peak. p. 93. ISBN 9781941451045.  Pan Ming Huang; Yuncong Li; Malcolm E. Sumner, eds. (2012). Handbook of Soil Sciences: Properties and Processes (Second ed.). Boca Raton: CRC Press. pp. 20–24. ISBN 978-1-4398-0306-6.  Marshall, Royal R. (1 October 1961). "Devitrification of Natural Glass". GSA Bulletin. 72 (10): 1493–1520. Bibcode:1961GSAB...72.1493M. doi:10.1130/0016-7606(1961)72[1493:DONG]2.0.CO;2.  "Perlite – Mineral Deposit Profiles". B.C. Geological Survey. Archived from the original on 2008-05-09. Retrieved 2007-11-20.  Ma, Chi; Rossman, George (2013). "Nanomineralogy of Gemstones: From Genesis to Discovery" (PDF). Mineralogical Magazine. 77 (5): 1661. doi:10.1180/minmag.2013.077.5.13. hdl:10174/9676. Retrieved May 1, 2019.  Nadin, E. (2007). "The secret lives of minerals" (PDF). Engineering & Science (1): 10–20.  Bonetti, R.; Di Cesare, P.; Guglielmetti, A.; Malerba, F.; Migliorini, E.; Oddone, M.; Bird, J. R.; Torrence, R.; Bultitude, R. J. (25 November 1998). "Fission track dating of obsidian source samples from the Willaumez Peninsula, Papua New Guinea and eastern Australia" (PDF). Records of the Australian Museum. 50 (3): 277–84. doi:10.3853/j.0067-1975.50.1998.1286.  Washington Obsidian Source Map Archived 2015-08-21 at the Wayback Machine. Obsidianlab.com. Retrieved on 2011-11-20.  Oregon Obsidian Sources. Sourcecatalog.com (2011-11-15). Retrieved on 2011-11-20.  Iain Morley and Colin Renfrew. The Archaeology of Measurement: Comprehending Heaven, Earth and Time in Ancient Societies, Cambridge University Press, 2010 ISBN 0521119901.  E Blake; A B Knapp (2005). The Archaeology Of Mediterranean Prehistory. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0631232681.  Prince Mikasa no Miya Takahito. Essays on Anatolian Archaeology, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, 1993 ISBN 3447033959.  L Romano. 6 ICAANE, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, 2010 Volume 3 of Proceedings of the 6th International Congress of the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East: 5–10 May 2009 ISBN 3447062177.  P R S Moorey. Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and Industries: The Archaeological Evidence Eisenbrauns, 1999 ISBN 1575060426.  Bunny, Sarah (18 April 1985). "Ancient trade routes for obsidian". New Scientist.  Schmandt-Besserat, D. (1979). Early technologies. Vol. 3. Malibu, Ca.: Undena Publications. ISBN 0890030316.  Merrick, H.V.; Brown, F.H.; Nash, W.P. (1994). Society, Culture, and Technology in Africa Import. Vol. 11. Univ Museum Pubns. ISBN 1931707057.  J. D. Fage. The Cambridge history of Africa: From c. 1600 to c. 1790, Part 1050, Cambridge University Press, 1979 ISBN 0521215927  National Museum of Kenya. Kariandusi Archived 2007-10-24 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 2012-06-30  Martinelli, Maria Clara; Tykot, Robert H.; Vianello, Andrea (20 April 2019). "Lipari (Aeolian islands) obsidian in the late Neolithic. Artifacts, supply, and function". Open Archaeology. 5 (1): 46–64. doi:10.1515/opar-2019-0005. S2CID 150094926.  Brown, Keri A.; Tykot, Robert H. (August 2018). "Obsidian in the Tavoliere, Southeastern Italy — A regional study". Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports. 20: 284–292. Bibcode:2018JArSR..20..284B. doi:10.1016/j.jasrep.2018.04.035. S2CID 134356403.  A. M. Pollard; Carl Heron (2008). Archaeological Chemistry. Royal Society of Chemistry. ISBN 978-0854042623.  Oates, J.; McMahon, A.; Karsgaard, P.; Quntar, S. A.; Ur, J. (2 January 2015). "Early Mesopotamian urbanism: a new view from the north" (PDF). Antiquity. 81 (313): 585–600. doi:10.1017/S0003598X00095600. S2CID 3803714.  Tripković, Boban (2003). "The Quality and Value In Neolithic Europe: An Alternative View on Obsidian Artifacts". South Eastern Europe Proceedings of the ESF Workshop, Sofia. 103: 119–123. Retrieved 21 June 2019.  "John Dee's spirit mirror – The British Library". 2020-04-01. Archived from the original on 2020-04-01. Retrieved 2020-04-01.  John Noble Wilford (2010-04-05). "In Syria, a Prologue for Cities". The New York Times.  George Robert Rapp (2002). Archaeomineralogy. Springer. ISBN 978-3540425793.  "Obsidian | Oki Islands UNESCO Global Geopark".  Izuho, Masami; Sato, Hiroyumi (2007). "Archaeological obsidian studies in Hokkaido, Japan: Retrospect and prospects". Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association Bulletin. 27. doi:10.7152/bippa.v27i0.11982 (inactive 2024-01-22). Retrieved 2 March 2022.  Yellin, Joseph; Levy, Thomas E.; Rowan, Yorke M. (1996). "New Evidence on Prehistoric Trade Routes: The Obsidian Evidence from Gilat, Israel". Journal of Field Archaeology. 23 (3): 361–68. doi:10.1179/009346996791973873.  Brokmann, Carlos (2000). "Tipología y análisis de la obsidiana de Yaxchilán, Chiapas". Colección Científica (in Spanish). INAH (422).  Hogan, CM (2008). A. Burnham (ed.). "Morro Creek". Megalithic.co.uk. Retrieved 2011-11-20.  Panich, Lee; Michelini, Antonio; Shackley, M. (2012-12-01). "Obsidian Sources of Northern Baja California: The Known and the Unknown". Faculty Publications.  Stark, Barbara L.; Boxt, Matthew A.; Gasco, Janine; González Lauck, Rebecca B.; Hedgepeth Balkin, Jessica D.; Joyce, Arthur A.; King, Stacie M.; Knight, Charles L. F.; Kruger, Robert (2016-03-01). "Economic growth in Mesoamerica: Obsidian consumption in the coastal lowlands". Journal of Anthropological Archaeology. 41: 263–282. doi:10.1016/j.jaa.2016.01.008. ISSN 0278-4165.  Mario Pino Quivido & Rayen Navarro (2005). "Geoarqueología del sitio arcaico Chan-Chan 18, costa de Valdivia: Discriminación de ambientes de ocupación humana y su relación con la transgresión marina del Holoceno Medio". Revista Geológica de Chile. 32. doi:10.4067/S0716-02082005000100004.  Naranjo, José A; Stern, Charles R (2004). "Holocene tephrochronology of the southernmost part (42°30'–45°S) of the Andean Southern Volcanic Zone". Revista Geológica de Chile. 31 (2): 225–40. doi:10.4067/S0716-02082004000200003. OCLC 61022562.  Specht, Jim (2018). "Research issues in the circum-New Guinea islands". In Cochrane, Ethan E.; Hunt, Terry L. (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Prehistoric Oceania. Oxford University Press. p. 100. ISBN 978-0-19-992507-0.  Eric Kjellgren; JoAnne Van Tilburg; Adrienne Lois Kaeppler (2001). Splendid Isolation: Art of Easter Island. Metropolitan Museum of Art. pp. 39–. ISBN 978-1-58839-011-0.  Shadbolt, Peter (2015-04-02). "CNN Health: How Stone Age blades are still cutting it in modern surgery". CNN. Retrieved 2023-09-07.  Buck, BA (March 1982). "Ancient Technology in Contemporary Surgery". The Western Journal of Medicine. 136 (3): 265–269. PMC 1273673. PMID 7046256.  Haviland, W.A.; Prins H.E.L.; Walrath D.; McBride B. (2010). Anthropology: The Human Challenge (13 ed.). Cengage Learning. p. 196. ISBN 9780495810841. Retrieved 27 September 2012.  Disa, J. J.; Vossoughi, J.; Goldberg, N. H. (October 1993). "A comparison of obsidian and surgical steel scalpel wound healing in rats". Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery. 92 (5): 884–887. doi:10.1097/00006534-199392050-00015. PMID 8415970.  Fine Science Tools (FST). "FST product catalog". FST. Retrieved 7 September 2012.  "Fine Science Tools – Obsidian Scalpels" https://www.finescience.com/en-US/Products/Scalpels-Blades/Micro-Knives/Obsidian-Scalpels  Manutchehr-Danai, Mohsen (2013-03-09). Dictionary of Gems and Gemology. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 9783662042885. 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For other uses, see Hematite (disambiguation). Hematite Brazilian trigonal hematite crystal General Category Oxide minerals Formula (repeating unit) iron(III) oxide, Fe2O3, α-Fe2O3[1] IMA symbol Hem[2] Strunz classification 4.CB.05 Dana classification 4.3.1.2 Crystal system Trigonal Crystal class Hexagonal scalenohedral (3m) H–M symbol: (3 2/m) Space group R3c (no. 167) Unit cell a = 5.038(2) Å; c = 13.772(12) Å; Z = 6 Identification Color Metallic grey, dull to bright "rust-red" in earthy, compact, fine-grained material, steel-grey to black in crystals and massively crystalline ores Crystal habit Tabular to thick crystals; micaceous or platy, commonly in rosettes; radiating fibrous, reniform, botryoidal or stalactitic masses, columnar; earthy, granular, oolitic Twinning Penetration and lamellar Cleavage None, may show partings on {0001} and {1011} Fracture Uneven to subconchoidal Tenacity Brittle Mohs scale hardness 5.5–6.5 Luster Metallic to splendent Streak Bright red to dark red Diaphaneity Opaque Specific gravity 5.26 Density 5.3 Optical properties Uniaxial (−) Refractive index nω = 3.150–3.220, nε = 2.870–2.940 Birefringence δ = 0.280 Pleochroism O = brownish red; E = yellowish red References [3][4][5] Hematite (/ˈhiːməˌtaɪt, ˈhɛmə-/), also spelled as haematite, is a common iron oxide compound with the formula, Fe2O3 and is widely found in rocks and soils.[6] Hematite crystals belong to the rhombohedral lattice system which is designated the alpha polymorph of Fe 2O 3. It has the same crystal structure as corundum (Al 2O 3) and ilmenite (FeTiO 3). With this it forms a complete solid solution at temperatures above 950 °C (1,740 °F). Hematite naturally occurs in black to steel or silver-gray, brown to reddish-brown, or red colors. It is mined as an important ore mineral of iron. It is electrically conductive.[7] Hematite varieties include kidney ore, martite (pseudomorphs after magnetite), iron rose and specularite (specular hematite). While these forms vary, they all have a rust-red streak. Hematite is not only harder than pure iron, but also much more brittle. Maghemite is a polymorph of hematite (γ-Fe 2O 3) with the same chemical formula, but with a spinel structure like magnetite. Large deposits of hematite are found in banded iron formations. Gray hematite is typically found in places that have still, standing water or mineral hot springs, such as those in Yellowstone National Park in North America. The mineral can precipitate in the water and collect in layers at the bottom of the lake, spring, or other standing water. Hematite can also occur in the absence of water, usually as the result of volcanic activity. Clay-sized hematite crystals can also occur as a secondary mineral formed by weathering processes in soil, and along with other iron oxides or oxyhydroxides such as goethite, which is responsible for the red color of many tropical, ancient, or otherwise highly weathered soils. Etymology and history Main article: Ochre The name hematite is derived from the Greek word for blood αἷμα (haima), due to the red coloration found in some varieties of hematite.[6] The color of hematite is often used as a pigment. The English name of the stone is derived from Middle French hématite pierre, which was taken from Latin lapis haematites c. the 15th century, which originated from Ancient Greek αἱματίτης λίθος (haimatitēs lithos, "blood-red stone"). Ochre is a clay that is colored by varying amounts of hematite, varying between 20% and 70%.[8] Red ochre contains unhydrated hematite, whereas yellow ochre contains hydrated hematite (Fe2O3 · H2O). The principal use of ochre is for tinting with a permanent color.[8] The red chalk writing of this mineral was one of the earliest in the human history. The powdery mineral was first used 164,000 years ago by the Pinnacle-Point man, possibly for social purposes.[9] Hematite residues are also found in graves from 80,000 years ago. Near Rydno in Poland and Lovas in Hungary red chalk mines have been found that are from 5000 BC, belonging to the Linear Pottery culture at the Upper Rhine.[10] Rich deposits of hematite have been found on the island of Elba that have been mined since the time of the Etruscans.[11] Magnetism Hematite shows only a very feeble response to a magnetic field. Unlike magnetite, it is not noticeably attracted to an ordinary magnet. Hematite is an antiferromagnetic material below the Morin transition at 250 K (−23 °C), and a canted antiferromagnet or weakly ferromagnetic above the Morin transition and below its Néel temperature at 948 K (675 °C), above which it is paramagnetic. The magnetic structure of α-hematite was the subject of considerable discussion and debate during the 1950s, as it appeared to be ferromagnetic with a Curie temperature of approximately 1,000 K (730 °C), but with an extremely small magnetic moment (0.002 Bohr magnetons). Adding to the surprise was a transition with a decrease in temperature at around 260 K (−13 °C) to a phase with no net magnetic moment. It was shown that the system is essentially antiferromagnetic, but that the low symmetry of the cation sites allows spin–orbit coupling to cause canting of the moments when they are in the plane perpendicular to the c axis. The disappearance of the moment with a decrease in temperature at 260 K (−13 °C) is caused by a change in the anisotropy which causes the moments to align along the c axis. In this configuration, spin canting does not reduce the energy.[12][13] The magnetic properties of bulk hematite differ from their nanoscale counterparts. For example, the Morin transition temperature of hematite decreases with a decrease in the particle size. The suppression of this transition has been observed in hematite nanoparticles and is attributed to the presence of impurities, water molecules and defects in the crystals lattice. Hematite is part of a complex solid solution oxyhydroxide system having various contents of H2O (water), hydroxyl groups and vacancy substitutions that affect the mineral's magnetic and crystal chemical properties.[14] Two other end-members are referred to as protohematite and hydrohematite. Enhanced magnetic coercivities for hematite have been achieved by dry-heating a two-line ferrihydrite precursor prepared from solution. Hematite exhibited temperature-dependent magnetic coercivity values ranging from 289 to 5,027 oersteds (23–400 kA/m). The origin of these high coercivity values has been interpreted as a consequence of the subparticle structure induced by the different particle and crystallite size growth rates at increasing annealing temperature. These differences in the growth rates are translated into a progressive development of a subparticle structure at the nanoscale (super small). At lower temperatures (350–600 °C), single particles crystallize. However, at higher temperatures (600–1000 °C), the growth of crystalline aggregates, and a subparticle structure is favored.[15] A microscopic picture of hematite A microscopic picture of hematite   Crystal structure of hematite Crystal structure of hematite Mine tailings Hematite is present in the waste tailings of iron mines. A recently developed process, magnetation, uses magnets to glean waste hematite from old mine tailings in Minnesota's vast Mesabi Range iron district.[16] Falu red is a pigment used in traditional Swedish house paints. Originally, it was made from tailings of the Falu mine.[17] Mars Image mosaic from the Mars Exploration Rover Microscopic Imager shows Hematite spherules partly embedded in rock at the Opportunity landing site. Image is around 5 cm (2 in) across. The spectral signature of hematite was seen on the planet Mars by the infrared spectrometer on the NASA Mars Global Surveyor[18] and 2001 Mars Odyssey[19] spacecraft in orbit around Mars. The mineral was seen in abundance at two sites[20] on the planet, the Terra Meridiani site, near the Martian equator at 0° longitude, and the Aram Chaos site near the Valles Marineris.[21] Several other sites also showed hematite, such as Aureum Chaos.[22] Because terrestrial hematite is typically a mineral formed in aqueous environments or by aqueous alteration, this detection was scientifically interesting enough that the second of the two Mars Exploration Rovers was sent to a site in the Terra Meridiani region designated Meridiani Planum. In-situ investigations by the Opportunity rover showed a significant amount of hematite, much of it in the form of small "Martian spherules" that were informally named "blueberries" by the science team. Analysis indicates that these spherules are apparently concretions formed from a water solution. "Knowing just how the hematite on Mars was formed will help us characterize the past environment and determine whether that environment was favorable for life".[23] Jewelry Hematite is often shaped into beads, tumbling stones, and other jewellery components.[24] Hematite was once used as mourning jewelry.[25][7] Certain types of hematite- or iron-oxide-rich clay, especially Armenian bole, have been used in gilding. Hematite is also used in art such as in the creation of intaglio engraved gems. Hematine is a synthetic material sold as magnetic hematite.[26] Pigment Hematite has been sourced to make pigments since earlier origins of human pictorial depictions, such as on cave linings and other surfaces, and has been continually employed in artwork through the eras. It forms the basis for red, purple and brown iron-oxide pigments, as well as being an important component of ochre, sienna and umber pigments.[27] Industrial purposes As mentioned earlier, hematite is an important mineral for iron ore. The physical properties of hematite are also employed in the areas of medical equipment, shipping industries and coal production. Having high density and capable as an effective barrier for X-ray passage, it is often incorporated into radiation shielding. As with other iron ores, it is often a component of ship ballasts for its density and economy. In the coal industry, it can be formed into a high specific density solution, to help separate coal powder from impurities.[28] Gallery A rare pseudo-scalenohedral crystal habit A rare pseudo-scalenohedral crystal habit   Three gemmy quartz crystals containing bright rust-red inclusions of hematite, on a field of sparkly black specular hematite Three gemmy quartz crystals containing bright rust-red inclusions of hematite, on a field of sparkly black specular hematite   Golden acicular crystals of rutile radiating from a center of platy hematite Golden acicular crystals of rutile radiating from a center of platy hematite   Cypro-Minoan cylinder seal (left) made from hematite with corresponding impression (right), approximately 14th century BC Cypro-Minoan cylinder seal (left) made from hematite with corresponding impression (right), approximately 14th century BC   A cluster of parallel-growth, mirror-bright, metallic-gray hematite blades from Brazil A cluster of parallel-growth, mirror-bright, metallic-gray hematite blades from Brazil   Hematite carving, 5 cm (2 in) long Hematite carving, 5 cm (2 in) long   Hematite, variant specularite (specular hematite), with fine grain shown Hematite, variant specularite (specular hematite), with fine grain shown   Red hematite from banded iron formation in Wyoming Red hematite from banded iron formation in Wyoming   Hematite on Mars as found in form of "blueberries" (named by NASA) Hematite on Mars as found in form of "blueberries" (named by NASA)   Streak plate, showing that Hematite consistently leaves a rust-red streak. Streak plate, showing that Hematite consistently leaves a rust-red streak.   Hematite in Scanning Electron Microscope, magnification 100x. Hematite in Scanning Electron Microscope, magnification 100x.   Micaceous hematite taken with permission from Kelly's Mine, Lustleigh, Devon UK Micaceous hematite taken with permission from Kelly's Mine, Lustleigh, Devon UK See also Mill scale Mineral redox buffer Wüstite References  Dunlop, David J.; Özdemir, Özden (2001). Rock Magnetism: Fundamentals and Frontiers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 73. ISBN 9780521000987.  Warr, L.N. (2021). "IMA–CNMNC approved mineral symbols". Mineralogical Magazine. 85 (3): 291–320. Bibcode:2021MinM...85..291W. doi:10.1180/mgm.2021.43. S2CID 235729616.  Anthony, John W.; Bideaux, Richard A.; Bladh, Kenneth W.; Nichols, Monte C. (eds.). "Hematite" (PDF). Handbook of Mineralogy. Vol. III. Chantilly, VA: Mineralogical Society of America. ISBN 978-0962209727. Retrieved December 22, 2018.  "Hematite Mineral Data". WebMineral.com. Retrieved December 22, 2018.  "Hematite". Mindat.org. Retrieved December 22, 2018.  Cornell, Rochelle M.; Schwertmann, Udo (1996). The Iron Oxides. Germany: Wiley. pp. 4, 26. ISBN 9783527285761. LCCN 96031931. Retrieved December 22, 2018.  Morgenthau, Mengo L. (1923). Minerals and Cut Stones: Reference Book Containing Condensed and Simplified Descriptions from Standard Works on Mineralogy. p. 23.  "Ochre". Industrial Minerals. Minerals Zone. Archived from the original on November 15, 2016. Retrieved December 22, 2018.  "Researchers find earliest evidence for modern human behavior in South Africa" (Press release). AAAS. ASU News. October 17, 2007. Retrieved December 22, 2018.  Levato, Chiara (2016). "Iron Oxides Prehistoric Mines: A European Overview" (PDF). Anthropologica et Præhistorica. 126: 9–23. Retrieved December 22, 2018.  Benvenuti, M.; Dini, A.; D'Orazio, M.; Chiarantini, L.; Corretti, A.; Costagliola, P. (June 2013). "The tungsten and tin signature of iron ores from Elba Island (Italy)". Archaeometry. 55 (3): 479–506. doi:10.1111/j.1475-4754.2012.00692.x.  Dzyaloshinsky, I. E. (1958). "A thermodynamic theory of "weak" ferromagnetism of antiferromagnetics". Journal of Physics and Chemistry of Solids. 4 (4): 241–255. Bibcode:1958JPCS....4..241D. doi:10.1016/0022-3697(58)90076-3.  Moriya, Tōru (1960). "Anisotropic Superexchange Interaction and Weak Ferromagnetism" (PDF). Physical Review. 120 (1): 91. Bibcode:1960PhRv..120...91M. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.120.91.  Dang, M.-Z.; Rancourt, D. G.; Dutrizac, J. E.; Lamarche, G.; Provencher, R. (1998). "Interplay of surface conditions, particle size, stoichiometry, cell parameters, and magnetism in synthetic hematite-like materials". Hyperfine Interactions. 117 (1–4): 271–319. Bibcode:1998HyInt.117..271D. doi:10.1023/A:1012655729417. S2CID 94031594.  Vallina, B.; Rodriguez-Blanco, J. D.; Brown, A. P.; Benning, L. G.; Blanco, J. A. (2014). "Enhanced magnetic coercivity of α-Fe2O3 obtained from carbonated 2-line ferrihydrite" (PDF). Journal of Nanoparticle Research. 16 (3): 2322. Bibcode:2014JNR....16.2322V. doi:10.1007/s11051-014-2322-5. S2CID 137598876.  Redman, Chris (May 20, 2009). "The next iron rush". Money.cnn.com. Retrieved December 22, 2018.  "Sveriges mest beprövade husfärg" [Sweden's most proven house color] (in Swedish). Retrieved December 22, 2018.  "Mars Global Surveyor TES Instrument Identification of Hematite on Mars" (Press release). NASA. May 27, 1998. Archived from the original on May 13, 2007. Retrieved December 22, 2018.  Christensen, Philip R. (2004). "Formation of the hematite-bearing unit in Meridiani Planum: Evidence for deposition in standing water". Journal of Geophysical Research. 109 (E8): E08003. Bibcode:2004JGRE..109.8003C. doi:10.1029/2003JE002233.  Bandfield, Joshua L. (2002). "Global mineral distributions on Mars" (PDF). Journal of Geophysical Research. 107 (E6): E65042. Bibcode:2002JGRE..107.5042B. doi:10.1029/2001JE001510.  Glotch, Timothy D.; Christensen, Philip R. (2005). "Geologic and mineralogic mapping of Aram Chaos: Evidence for a water-rich history". Journal of Geophysical Research. 110 (E9): E09006. Bibcode:2005JGRE..110.9006G. doi:10.1029/2004JE002389. S2CID 53489327.  Glotch, Timothy D.; Rogers, D.; Christensen, Philip R. (2005). "A Newly Discovered Hematite-Rich Unit in Aureum Chaos: Comparison of Hematite and Associated Units With Those in Aram Chaos" (PDF). Lunar and Planetary Science. 36: 2159. Bibcode:2005LPI....36.2159G.  "Hematite". NASA. Retrieved December 22, 2018.  "Hematite: A primary ore of iron and a pigment mineral". geology.com. Retrieved 2023-09-07.  Oldershaw, Cally (2003). Firefly Guide to Gems. Firefly Books. p. 53. ISBN 978-1-55297-814-6.  "Magnetic Hematite". Mindat.org. Retrieved December 22, 2018.  "Colors from the Earth: Violet Hematite". www.naturalpigments.com. Retrieved 2023-09-07.  "Hematite: A primary ore of iron and a pigment mineral". geology.com. Retrieved 2023-09-07. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Hematite. 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  • Condition: Neu ohne Etikett
  • Condition: In Excellent Condition
  • Base Metal: Crytals
  • Metal: Crystals
  • Chain Type: Ball/Bead
  • Charm Type: Bead
  • Main Stone Shape: Round
  • Item Length: 21 cm
  • Occasion: Anniversary, Birthday, Christening, Christmas, Engagement, Graduation, Mother's Day, Valentine's Day, Wedding
  • Cut Grade: Good
  • Material: Crystal
  • Colour: Silver
  • Main Stone: Tiger Eye
  • Main Stone Colour: Silver
  • Main Stone Creation: Natural
  • Shape: Round
  • Setting Style: Crystals
  • Main Stone Treatment: Not Enhanced
  • Number of Gemstones: 20
  • Secondary Stone: Hematite
  • Brand: Hematite
  • Style: Beaded
  • Country of Origin: United Kingdom
  • Closure: Magnetic
  • Metal Purity: Unknown
  • Theme: Healing
  • Type: Bracelet

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